A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | CH | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
| Western Armenian | |
|---|---|
| Արեւմտահայերէն (Arevmdahayerēn) | |
| Native to | Turkey (Armenian Highlands), Armenia, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria |
Native speakers | 1.6 million (2019)[1] |
Indo-European
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| Armenian alphabet (virtually always in the Classical Armenian orthography) | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | hyw |
| Glottolog | homs1234 |
| Linguasphere | 57-AAA-ac |
 Map of the Armenian dialects in early 20th century: -gë dialects, corresponding to Western Armenian, are in yellow. | |
 Western Armenian is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger[2] | |
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| History of the Armenian language |
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Armenian alphabet Romanization of Armenian |
Western Armenian (Western Armenian: Արեւմտահայերէն, romanized: Arevmdahayeren [ɑɾɛvmədɑhɑjɛˈɾɛn])[a] is one of the two standardized[3] forms of Modern Armenian, the other being Eastern Armenian. It is based mainly on the Istanbul Armenian dialect, as opposed to Eastern Armenian, which is mainly based on the Yerevan Armenian dialect.
Until the early 20th century, various Western Armenian dialects were also spoken in the Ottoman Empire, especially in the eastern regions historically populated by Armenians known as Western Armenia. The spoken or dialectal varieties of Western Armenian currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin peoples;[4] the dialects of Armenians of Kessab, Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur of Syria, Anjar of Lebanon, and Istanbul and Vakıflı, of Turkey (part of the "Sueidia" dialect). Sasun and Mush dialect is also spoken in modern-day Armenia villages such as Bazmaberd and Sasnashen. The Cilician dialect is also spoken in Cyprus, where it is taught in Armenian schools (Nareg), and is the first language of about 3,000 people of Armenian descent.
Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in the Shirak province,[5] and by Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).[6]
A mostly diasporic language and one that is not an official language of any state, Western Armenian faces extinction as its native speakers lose fluency in Western Armenian amid pressures to assimilate into their host countries. According to Ethnologue, there are 1.58 million native speakers of Western Armenian, primarily in Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Lebanon, and Iraq. The language is classified as 6b (i.e., threatened, with interruptions in intergenerational transmission).[7]
Classification
Western Armenian is an Indo-European language and belongs to the Armenic branch of the family, along with Eastern and Classical Armenian. According to Glottolog Antioch, Artial, Asia Minor, Bolu, Hamshenic, Kilikien, Mush-Tigranakert, Stanoz, Vanic and Yozgat are the main dialects of Western Armenian.[8]
Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian are, for the most part, mutually intelligible for educated or literate users of the other, while illiterate or semiliterate users of lower registers of each one may have difficulty understanding the other variant. One phonological difference is that voiced stops in Eastern Armenian are voiceless in Western Armenian.[9]
Speakers
Western Armenian is spoken by Armenians of most of the Southeastern Europe and Middle East except for Iran, and Rostov-on-Don in Russia. It is a moribund language spoken by only a small percentage of Armenians in Turkey (especially in Istanbul) as a first language, with 18 percent among the community in general and 8 percent among younger people.[10] There are notable diaspora L2 Western Armenian speakers in Lebanon (Beirut), Syria (Aleppo, Damascus), California (Fresno, Los Angeles), and France (Marseilles).[11]
Western Armenian used to be the dominant Armenian variety, but as a result of the Armenian genocide, the speakers of Western Armenian were mostly murdered or exiled. Those who fled to Eastern Armenia now speak either Eastern Armenian or have a diglossic situation between Western Armenian dialects in informal usage and an Eastern Armenian standard. The only Western Armenian dialect still spoken in Western Armenia is the Homshetsi dialect, since the Hemshin peoples, who were Muslim converts, did not fall victim to the Armenian genocide.[citation needed]
Western Armenian isn't just predominant for Armenian's in the Middle East, the Armenians living in Southeastern Europe/Balkans, mostly Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Turkey (Istanbul) are Western Armenian speakers, who immigrated of the Armenian Genocide. Historically there was presence of Western Armenians (Cilicians) in Moldova.
On 21 February 2009, International Mother Language Day, a new edition of the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger was released by UNESCO in which the Western Armenian language in Turkey was defined as a definitely endangered language.[12][13]
Modern Day speakers
In modern day Armenia, there is a municipality called Gyumri, the city took host to large numbers of Armenian refugees fleeing the Ottoman Empire from the Armenian Genocide. Many of these people spoke the Karin dialect of Armenian, which is spoken in Gyumri but overtime many Eastern Armenian and Russian words have been borrowed into the dialect. There was also a wave of Armenians coming from the Middle East who were Western Armenian, who moved to the Soviet Union, mostly in Soviet Armenia. Many have assimilated into the Eastern Armenian dialect.
Endangerment and controversy
With Western Armenian being declared an endangered language, there has been recent pushback on reviving the language in Los Angeles,[14] which is home to the largest concentration of Western Armenians.
Shushan Karapetian, in her evaluation of both the Eastern and Western dialects of Armenian, concludes that heritage languages, in the face of an English dominant society, rapidly die out within no more than 2 generations, calling America a "linguistic graveyard."[15] In US census data, the number of people who speak Western Armenian at home has rapidly declined, down from 25% in 1980 to 16% in 2000.[15]
Phonology
Vowels
Monophthongs
Western Armenian has eight monophthongs.
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unrounded | Rounded | Unrounded | Rounded | ||
| Close | i ⟨ի⟩ | ʏ ⟨իւ⟩ | u ⟨ու⟩ | ||
| Mid | ɛ ⟨է, ե⟩[16] | œ ⟨էօ⟩ | ə ⟨ը⟩ | o ⟨ո, օ⟩[16] | |
| Open | ɑ ⟨ա⟩ | ||||
| IPA | Example (IPA) | Example (written) | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ɑ | արեւ | "sun" | Similar to the English vowel in the word car. | |
| ɛ | էջ | "page" | Similar to the English vowel in the word bed. | |
| i | իմ | "my" | Similar to the English vowel in the word eat. | |
| o | չոր | "dry" | Similar to the English vowel in bore. | |
| u | ուր | "where" | Similar to the English vowel in the word shoot. | |
| ə | ըսել | "to say" | Similar to the English vowel in the word about. | |
| ʏ | հիւր | "guest" | Similar to French "u" or the German vowel in the word schützen. | |
| œ | Էօժենի | a female name | This vowel sound is rare in Armenian, and is used in foreign words. |
Diphthongs
Western Armenian has ten environments in which two vowels in the orthography appear next to each other, called diphthongs. By definition, they appear in the same syllable. For those unfamiliar with IPA symbols, /j/ represents the English "y" sound. The Armenian letter "ե" is often used in combinations such as /ja/ (ya) and /jo/ (yo). If used at the beginning of a word, "ե" alone is sufficient to represent /jɛ/ (as in yes). The Armenian letter "յ" is used for the glide after vowels. The IPA /ɑj/ (like English long i) and /uj/ diphthongs are common, while /ej/ (English long a), /ij, iə/ (a stretched-out long e), and /oj/ (oy) are rare. The following examples are sometimes across syllable and morpheme boundaries, and gliding is then expected:
| IPA | Example (IPA) | Example (written) | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| jɑ | sɛnjɑɡ | սենեակ | "room" | Similar to English yard. |
| jɛ | jɛɾɑz | երազ | "dream" | Similar to English yell. |
| ji | mɑjis | Մայիս | "May" | Similar to English year. |
| jo | jotə | եօթը | "seven" | Similar to English yogurt. |
| ju | ɡɑjun | կայուն | "firm" | Similar to English you. |
| aj | majɾ | մայր | "mother" | Similar to English my or mine. |
| ej | tej | թէյ | "tea" | Similar to English day. |
| iə | iənɑl | իյնալ | "to fall" | Similar to English near, in non-rhotic dialects. |
| oj | χoj | խոյ | "ram" | Similar to English toy. |
| uj | kujr | քոյր | "sister" | Similar to English buoy, in some American dialects. |
Consonants
This is the Western Armenian Consonantal System using letters from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), followed by the corresponding Armenian letter in brackets.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palato -(alveolar) | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m ⟨մ⟩ | n ⟨ն⟩ | |||||
| Stop | aspirated | pʰ ⟨բ, փ⟩[17] | tʰ ⟨դ, թ⟩[17] | kʰ ⟨գ, ք⟩[17] | |||
| voiced | b ⟨պ⟩[18] | d ⟨տ⟩[18] | ɡ ⟨կ⟩[18] | ||||
| Affricate | aspirated | tsʰ ⟨ձ, ց⟩[17] | tʃʰ ⟨չ, ջ⟩[17] | ||||
| voiced | dz ⟨ծ⟩[18] | dʒ ⟨ճ⟩[18] | |||||
| Fricative | unvoiced | f ⟨ֆ⟩ | s ⟨ս⟩ | ʃ ⟨շ⟩ | χ ⟨խ⟩ | h ⟨հ, յ⟩[16] | |
| voiced | v ⟨վ, ւ, ու, ո⟩[16] | z ⟨զ⟩ | ʒ ⟨ժ⟩ | ʁ ⟨ղ⟩ | |||
| Approximant | l ⟨լ⟩ | j ⟨յ, ե, ի⟩[16] | |||||
| Flap | ɾ ⟨ռ, ր⟩[19] | ||||||
The /f/ in Armenian is rare; the letter "ֆ" was added to the alphabet much later. The ?pojem= glide is not used except for foreign proper nouns, like Washington (by utilizing the "u" vowel, Armenian "ու").
Differences from Classical Armenian
Differences in phonology between Western Armenian and Classical Armenian include the distinction of stops and affricates.
Firstly, while Classical Armenian has a three-way distinction of stops and affricates (one voiced and two voiceless: one plain and one aspirated), Western Armenian has kept only a two-way distinction (one voiced and one aspirated). For example, Classical Armenian has three bilabial stops (/b/ ⟨բ⟩, /p/ ⟨պ⟩, and /pʰ/ ⟨փ⟩), but Western Armenian has only two bilabial stops (/b/ ⟨պ⟩ and /pʰ/ ⟨բ⟩/⟨փ⟩).
Secondly, Western Armenian has both changed the Classical Armenian voiced stops and voiced affricates to aspirated stops and aspirated affricates and replaced the plain stops and affricates with voiced consonants.
Specifically, here are the shifts from Classical Armenian to Western Armenian:
- Bilabial stops:
- merging of Classical Armenian /b/ ⟨բ⟩ and /pʰ/ ⟨փ⟩ as /pʰ/
- voicing of Classical /p/ ⟨պ⟩ to /b/
- Alveolar stops:
- merging of Classical Armenian /d/ ⟨դ⟩ and /tʰ/ ⟨թ⟩ as /tʰ/
- voicing of Classical /t/ ⟨տ⟩ to /d/
- Velar stops:
- merging of Classical Armenian /ɡ/ ⟨գ⟩ and /kʰ/ ⟨ք⟩ as /kʰ/
- voicing of Classical /k/ ⟨կ⟩ to /ɡ/
- Alveolar affricates:
- merging of Classical Armenian /dz/ ⟨ձ⟩ and /tsʰ/ ⟨ց⟩ as /tsʰ/
- voicing of Classical /ts/ ⟨ծ⟩ to /dz/
- Post-alveolar affricates:
- merging of Classical Armenian /dʒ/ ⟨ջ⟩ and /tʃʰ/ ⟨չ⟩ as /tʃʰ/
- voicing of Classical /tʃ/ ⟨ճ⟩ to /dʒ/
As a result, a word like 'water' (spelled ⟨ջուր⟩ in Classical Armenian) is cognate with Western Armenian (also spelled ⟨ջուր⟩). However, 'grandson' and 'stone' are pronounced similarly in both Classical and Western Armenian.
Orthography
Western Armenian uses Classical Armenian orthography, also known as traditional Mashtotsian orthography. The Armenian orthography reform, commonly known as the Abeghian orthography, was introduced in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and is still used by most Eastern Armenian speakers from modern Armenia. However, it has not been adopted by Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and their diaspora or by speakers of Western Armenian, with the exception of periodical publications published in Romania and Bulgaria while under Communist regimes.
Morphologyedit
Nounsedit
Western Armenian nouns have four grammatical cases: nominative-accusative (subject / direct object), genitive-dative (possession / indirect object), ablative (origin) and instrumental (means). Of the six cases, the nominative and accusative are the same, except for personal pronouns, and the genitive and dative are the same, meaning that nouns have four distinct forms for case. Nouns in Armenian also decline for number (singular and plural).
Declension in Armenian is based on how the genitive is formed. There are several declensions, but one is dominant (the genitive in i) while a half-dozen other forms are in gradual decline and are being replaced by the i-form, which has virtually attained the status of a regular form:
| դաշտ / tašd (field) | կով / gov (cow) | |||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | |
| Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | դաշտ / tašd | դաշտեր / tašder | կով / gov | կովեր / gover |
| Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | դաշտի / tašdi | դաշտերու / tašderu | կովու / govu | կովերու / goveru |
| Abl (Բացառական) | դաշտէ / tašde | դաշտերէ / tašdere | կովէ / gove | կովերէ / govere |
| Instr (Գործիական) | դաշտով / tašdov | դաշտերով / tašderov | կովով / govov | կովերով / goverov |