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| Grammatical features |
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In linguistic morphology, inflection (less commonly, inflexion) is a process of word formation[1] in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definiteness.[2] The inflection of verbs is called conjugation, and one can refer to the inflection of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, participles, prepositions and postpositions, numerals, articles, etc., as declension.
An inflection expresses grammatical categories with affixation (such as prefix, suffix, infix, circumfix, and transfix), apophony (as Indo-European ablaut), or other modifications.[3] For example, the Latin verb ducam, meaning "I will lead", includes the suffix -am, expressing person (first), number (singular), and tense-mood (future indicative or present subjunctive). The use of this suffix is an inflection. In contrast, in the English clause "I will lead", the word lead is not inflected for any of person, number, or tense; it is simply the bare form of a verb. The inflected form of a word often contains both one or more free morphemes (a unit of meaning which can stand by itself as a word), and one or more bound morphemes (a unit of meaning which cannot stand alone as a word). For example, the English word cars is a noun that is inflected for number, specifically to express the plural; the content morpheme car is unbound because it could stand alone as a word, while the suffix -s is bound because it cannot stand alone as a word. These two morphemes together form the inflected word cars.
Words that are never subject to inflection are said to be invariant; for example, the English verb must is an invariant item: it never takes a suffix or changes form to signify a different grammatical category. Its categories can be determined only from its context. Languages that seldom make use of inflection, such as English, are said to be analytic. Analytic languages that do not make use of derivational morphemes, such as Standard Chinese, are said to be isolating.
Requiring the forms or inflections of more than one word in a sentence to be compatible with each other according to the rules of the language is known as concord or agreement. For example, in "the man jumps", "man" is a singular noun, so "jump" is constrained in the present tense to use the third person singular suffix "s".
Languages that have some degree of inflection are synthetic languages. These can be highly inflected (such as Latin, Greek, Biblical Hebrew, and Sanskrit), or slightly inflected (such as English, Dutch, Persian). Languages that are so inflected that a sentence can consist of a single highly inflected word (such as many Native American languages) are called polysynthetic languages. Languages in which each inflection conveys only a single grammatical category, such as Finnish, are known as agglutinative languages, while languages in which a single inflection can convey multiple grammatical roles (such as both nominative case and plural, as in Latin and German) are called fusional.
Examples in English
In English most nouns are inflected for number with the inflectional plural affix -s (as in "dog" → "dog-s"), and most English verbs are inflected for tense with the inflectional past tense affix -ed (as in "call" → "call-ed"). English also inflects verbs by affixation to mark the third person singular in the present tense (with -s), and the present participle (with -ing). English short adjectives are inflected to mark comparative and superlative forms (with -er and -est respectively).
There are eight regular inflectional affixes in the English language.[4][5]
| Affix | Grammatical category | Mark | Part of speech |
|---|---|---|---|
| -s | Number | plural | nouns |
| -'s/'/s | Case | genitive | nouns and noun phrases, pronouns (marks independent genitive) |
| -ing | Aspect | progressive | gerunds or participles |
| -en/-ed | Aspect | perfect | verbs |
| -ed/-t | Tense | past (simple) | verbs |
| -s | Person, number, aspect, tense | 3rd person singular present indicative | verbs |
| -er | Degree of comparison | comparative | adjectives and adverbs |
| -est | Degree of comparison | superlative | adjectives and adverbs |
Despite the march toward regularization, modern English retains traces of its ancestry, with a minority of its words still using inflection by ablaut (sound change, mostly in verbs) and umlaut (a particular type of sound change, mostly in nouns), as well as long-short vowel alternation. For example:
- Write, wrote, written (marking by ablaut variation, and also suffixing in the participle)
- Sing, sang, sung (ablaut)
- Foot, feet (marking by umlaut variation)
- Mouse, mice (umlaut)
- Child, children (ablaut, and also suffixing in the plural)
For details, see English plural, English verbs, and English irregular verbs.
Regular and irregular inflection
When a given word class is subject to inflection in a particular language, there are generally one or more standard patterns of inflection (the paradigms described below) that words in that class may follow. Words which follow such a standard pattern are said to be regular; those that inflect differently are called irregular.
For instance, many languages that feature verb inflection have both regular verbs and irregular verbs. In English, regular verbs form their past tense and past participle with the ending -d. Therefore, verbs like play, arrive and enter are regular, while verbs like sing, keep and go are irregular. Irregular verbs often preserve patterns that were regular in past forms of the language, but which have now become anomalous; in rare cases, there are regular verbs that were irregular in past forms of the language. (For more details see English verbs and English irregular verbs.)
Other types of irregular inflected form include irregular plural nouns, such as the English mice, children and women (see English plural) and the French yeux (the plural of œil, "eye"); and irregular comparative and superlative forms of adjectives or adverbs, such as the English better and best (which correspond to the positive form good or well).
Irregularities can have four basic causes:[citation needed]
- euphony: Regular inflection would result in forms that sound esthetically unpleasing or are difficult to pronounce (English far → farther or further, Spanish tener → tengo, tendré vs. comer → como, comeré, Portuguese vs. Spanish andar → Portuguese andaram vs. Spanish anduvieron).
- principal parts: These are generally considered to have been formed independently of one another, so the student must memorize them when learning a new word. Example: Latin dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum → Spanish digo, decir, dije, dicho.
- strong vs. weak inflection: In some cases, two inflection systems exist, conventionally classified as "strong" and "weak." For instance, English and German have weak verbs that form the past tense and past participle by adding an ending (English jump → jumped, German machen → machte) and strong verbs that change vowel, and in some cases form the past participle by adding -en (English swim → swam, swum, German schwimmen → schwamm, geschwommen). Ancient Greek verbs are likewise said to have had a first aorist (ἔλῡσα) and a second aorist (ἔλιπον).
- suppletion: The "irregular" form was originally derived from a different root (English person → people). The comparative and superlative forms of good in many languages display this phenomenon (e.g. eng. good, better, best).
For more details on some of the considerations that apply to regularly and irregularly inflected forms, see the article on regular and irregular verbs.
Declension and conjugation
Two traditional grammatical terms refer to inflections of specific word classes:
- Inflecting a noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, article or determiner is known as declining it. The forms may express number, case, gender or degree of comparison.
- Inflecting a verb is called conjugating it. The forms may express tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, or number.
An organized list of the inflected forms of a given lexeme or root word is called its declension if it is a noun, or its conjugation if it is a verb.
Below is the declension of the English pronoun I, which is inflected for case and number.
| singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|
| nominative | I | we |
| oblique | me | us |
| possessive determiner | my | our |
| possessive pronoun | mine | ours |
| reflexive | myself | ourselves |
The pronoun who is also inflected according to case. Its declension is defective, in the sense that it lacks a reflexive form.
| singular and plural | |
|---|---|
| nominative | who |
| oblique | whom (traditional), who (informal) |
| possessive | whose |
| reflexive | – |
The following table shows the conjugation of the verb to arrive in the indicative mood: suffixes inflect it for person, number, and tense:
| Tense | I | you | he, she, it | we | you | they |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | arrive | arrive | arrives | arrive | arrive | arrive |
| Past | arrived | arrived | arrived | arrived | arrived | arrived |
The non-finite forms arrive (bare infinitive), arrived (past participle) and arriving (gerund/present participle), although not inflected for person or number, can also be regarded as part of the conjugation of the verb to arrive. Compound verb forms, such as I have arrived, I had arrived, or I will arrive, can be included also in the conjugation of the verb for didactic purposes, but they are not overt inflections of arrive. The formula for deriving the covert form, in which the relevant inflections do not occur in the main verb, is
- pronoun + conjugated auxiliary verb + non-finite form of main verb.
Inflectional paradigm
An inflectional paradigm refers to a pattern (usually a set of inflectional endings), where a class of words follow the same pattern. Nominal inflectional paradigms are called declensions, and verbal inflectional paradigms are termed conjugations. For instance, there are five types of Latin declension. Words that belong to the first declension usually end in -a and are usually feminine. These words share a common inflectional framework. In Old English, nouns are divided into two major categories of declension, the strong and weak ones, as shown below:
| gender and number | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| case | Strong noun declension | |||||
| engel 'angel' | scip 'ship' | sorg 'sorrow' | ||||
| Nominative | engel | englas | scip | scipu | sorg | sorga |
| Accusative | engel | englas | scip | scipu | sorge | sorga/sorge |
| Genitive | engles | engla | scipes | scipa | sorge | Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Inflectional_paradigm|