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| Gur | |
|---|---|
| Central Gur Mabia | |
| Geographic distribution | Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Togo, Nigeria |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo? |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | cent2243 (Gur + Waja–Jen) |
 | |
The Gur languages, also known as Central Gur or Mabia, belong to the Niger–Congo languages. They are spoken in the Sahelian and savanna regions of West Africa, namely: in most areas of Burkina Faso, and in south-central Mali, northeastern Ivory Coast, the northern halves of Ghana and Togo, northwestern Benin, and southwestern Niger. A few Gur languages are spoken in Nigeria. Additionally, a single Gur language, Baatonum, is spoken in Benin and in the extreme northwest of Nigeria. Three other single Gur languages, the Tusya, Vyemo and Tiefo languages, are spoken in Burkina Faso. Another unclassified Gur language, Miyobe, is spoken in Benin and Togo. In addition, Kulango, Loma and Lorhon, are spoken in Ghana, Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso. Additionally, a few Mossi speakers are in Senegal, and speakers of the Dagaare language are also found in Cameroon. The Samu languages of Burkina Faso are Gur languages.
Typological features
Like most Niger–Congo languages, the ancestor of Gur languages probably had a noun class system; many of today's languages have reduced this to a system of nominal genders or declensions or no longer have a class system.[1] A common property of Gur languages is the verbal aspect marking. Almost all Gur languages are tonal, with Koromfé being a notable exception. The tonal systems of Gur languages are rather divergent. Most Gur languages have been described as following the model of a two tone downstep system, but the languages of Oti-Volta branch and some others have three phonemic tones.
History of study
Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle first mentions twelve Gur languages in his 1854 Polyglotta Africana, which represent ten languages in modern classification. Notably, he correctly identified these languages as being related to one another; his 'North-Eastern High Sudan' corresponds to Gur in modern classification.
The Gur family was previously called Voltaic, following the French name (langues) Voltaïques (named after the Volta River). It was once considered to be more extensive than it is often regarded today, including the Senufo languages and a number of small language isolates. The inclusion of Senufo within Gur has been rejected by many linguists, including Tony Naden.[2] Williamson and Blench[3] place Senufo as a separate branch of Atlantic–Congo, while other non-Central Gur languages are placed somewhat closer as separate branches within the Savannas continuum.
Kleinewillinghöfer (2014) notes that the closest relatives of Gur appear to be several branches of the obsolete Adamawa family, since many "Adamawa" languages in fact share more similarities with various (Central) Gur languages than with other Adamawa languages. He proposes that early Gur-Adamawa speakers had cultivated guinea corn and millet in a wooded savanna environment.[4]
Classification
The regions on the map denote regional distribution of the Central Gur languages. The tree-diagram below denotes the relations between these languages and their closest relatives:
- ? Greater Gur (or Gur–Adamawa)
- Central Gur (or Mabia)
- Northern Gur
- Southern Gur
- ? Waja–Kam
- ? Leko–Nimbari
- ? (possibly other putative Adamawa languages)
- Central Gur (or Mabia)
The position of Dogoso–Khe in Southern Gur is not clear; it is not closely related to other members of the branch.
Bodomo (2017)
Bodomo (2017) refers to the entire Central Gur group as Mabia.[5] The term Mabia is a portmanteau of the two lexical innovations ma- 'mother' + bia 'child'.[6]
The following is a classification of the Mabia (or Central Gur) languages from Bodomo (2017), as cited in Bodomo (2020).[6] Bodomo divides Mabia into three primary branches, namely West, East, and Central.
The term Mabia, instead of Gur, is also used by Naden (2021).[7]
Naden (2021) lists the languages of the Southern/Eastern Mabia group as Dagbani, Hanga, Kantoosi, Kamara, Kusaal (Kusasi), Mampruli (Mamprusi), Nabit, Nanun/Nanuni (also considered a dialect of Dagbani), and Talni.
Comparative vocabulary
Sample basic vocabulary of Gur languages:
Note: In table cells with slashes, the singular form is given before the slash, while the plural form follows the slash.
| Language (Village) | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | blood | bone | tree | water | eat | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Central Gur[8] | *me (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) | *ye (Gurunsi, Kurumfe) | *ñam, *ñim (Oti-Volta, Kurumfe) | *ʔob, *ʔo | *tɪ (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) | *ni, *ne; *nã (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) | *di | *yɪɗ, *yɪd (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) | ||||
| Kirma[9] | yifelle / yifiŋa | tuŋu / tunni | mɛlle / miẽŋa | nyilaŋu / nyiene | dyumelle / dyumiẽŋa | nuŋu / nunni | tammã | kogwoŋu / kogonne | tibiu / tibinni | humma | w | yere |
| Tyurama[9] | yisiri / yinya | twõgo / tõnya | meare / miaga | nyirogu / nyiranya | nambene / namblaga | nogu / nõnya | toama | kukugogu / kukunya | tibikugu / tibinyinya | huma | owu | yiri / yiga |
| Proto-Gurunsi[10] | *s₁l | *di₂/e/o(l/n) | *mi₁/e/o | *de/u₂(l) | *no₂/i₁ | *ca | *ti₂/e | *le/a/o; *ni₂/a/o | *di₁ | *yi₂(l/d) | ||
| Lyélé[9] | yir / yira | zyẽ / zyã | myél / myéla | yéél / yéla | médyolo / médyaalé | nyi / nya | gyal | ku / kur | kyoo / kyémé | nẽẽ | gyu | yil / yila |
| Proto-Oti–Volta[11] | *ni / *nun | *tʊ | *me | *n / *n | *lɪm / *lam; *z₂ɪ (?) | *noː | *z₁ɪm | *kob; *kpab | *yi / *tiː | *ɲa | *dɪ | *yi / *yʊ |
| Dagbani[12] | nini | tiba (pl.) | nyee | nyini | zinli | noli | ʒim | kɔbili | tia | kom | di | yuli |
| Gourmanchéma (Fada N’Gourma)[9] | numbu / nuni/nini | tubli / tuba | miali / miana | nyenli / nyena | lambu / landi | nyoabu / nyoane | soama | kpabli / kpaba | tibu / tidi | nyima | di | yeli / yela |
| Mossi [9] | nifu / nini | tubre / tuba | nyõre / nyüya | nyende / nyena | zilemde / zilma | nore / nwɛya | zim | kõbre / kõaba | tiɣa / tise | kom | di | yure / yuya |
| Frafra[13] | nifo / nini | tʊbre / tʊba | yõore / yõa | yẽnnɛ / yẽna | zɪlɪŋa / zɪlɪsɪ | nõorɛ / nõa | zɪɪm | kõbrɛ / kõba | tɪa / tɪɪsɪ | ko'om | di | yʊ'ʊrɛ / yʊ'ʊra |
| Dagaare [9] | mimir / mimie | tour / tubl | nyoboɣr / nyobogɛ | nyim / nyimɛ | zel / zelɛ | nwor / nɛ̃ | zĩ | kobr / kobɛ | tiɛ / tir | kõwõ/kwõõ | di | yur / ye |
| Proto-Eastern Oti–Volta[14] | *nuan- | *tuo- | *wuan- | *nin- | *dian- | *nua- | *yia- | *kuan- | *tie- | *nia- | *di- | *yi- |
| Bariba[15] | nɔnu, nɔni | so ~ soa, -su | wɛ̃ru | dondu | yara, -nu | nɔɔ (pl.?) | yem | kukuru | dã̀ã̀ (pl.?) | nim | tēm̄ | yísìrū |
| Natioro (Timba)[16] | ɲǎːpéjá | ɲàŋwà | mṹnṹpwã́ | ɲĩ́nã́ŋɟɛ̄ | nɛ̃́mɛ̃́sáː | pɛ́lːɛ̄ | sjã́ːmĩ́ | kàːkwà | súmwà | lwā | àʔɔ́lɪ̄ | ɲĩ́nã́ |
| Natioro (Niansogoni)[16] | ɲĩ́kúpjé | jɪ̀pã̌ | mṹnũ̀kũ̌ | ɲínːáː | lámːjáː | nã́ | tə́mǎ | nã́ŋkwáː | ʃjɛ̂ | nṹmṹː | ìwɔ́nːã́ | ínːã́ |
| Natioro (Faniagara)[16] | ɲã́pʊ̀ːnã́ | ífwã̀nã́ | ʔṹnṹfã̀nã́ | ĩ́ndáːnã̀ | nĩ́ŋsáːnã̄ | nã́ːnã̀ | tímĩ́nĩ́ | kʊ́kánã̄ | síːkénã́ | nĩ́mĩ́nĩ̀ | ɛ̀wòlòjɛ́ | ínã́ːnã̄ |
| Moyobe[17] | mɛnɪ́bɛ̀ / ɪ̀nɪ́bɛ̀ | kùtù / àtù | tíŋwáyí / áŋwáyí | tìní, kùní / aní | tìlénbí / àlénbí | ńnɔ́ɔ̀ / ínɔ́ɔ̀ | ményɛ́ / ányɛ́ | kúkɔ́hɔ́ / ákɔ́hɔ́ | kùléé / àléé | mɪ́nɪ̀ | li / lè | tìnyírì / ànyírì |
| Kulango (Bouna)[18] | piege / piewu | tengu / tenu | saŋa / sãum | kaɣangbo / kaɣam | delengbo / delemu | nɔɔɣɔ / nuom | tuɔm | zukukpo / zukum | diɛkɔ / diɛnu | yɔkɔ | dɪ | yukɔ / yum |
| Tiefo[19] | éjú | ēnɑ̃́tō | ēmɛ́ʔɛ́ | kɔ̃́ʔɔ̃́ | mʲɔ̃̄ | ēnwɔ̃́ʔɔ̃́ | ɟɑ̄lɑ̄, tɾɔ̃̄ | kɑ̄ūʔù | ʃɪ̃́ʔɪ́ | éjɛ́ | ||
| Viemo (Diosso)[20] | gĩ́ːɾɔ̀ | cũ̄ljɔ̀ | mūmúɾō | kɑ̃́ːdɔ̄ | lɑ̃́ːtīɾɔ̄ | ŋɑ̃́ | kjíːmō | fūfūɾɔ́ | sóbò | númōɔ | nũ̄ɔ̃ | índō |
| Viemo (Soumaguina)[20] | ɟĩ́ɾɔ̄ | tuĩ́jɔ̄ | mūmṹɾɔ̄ | kɑ̃̄ːnɔ̄ | lɑ̃́tīɾɔ̄ | ɲɑ̄ | tíɛ̄mɔ̄ | fúfūɾɔ̄ | sóbɔ̀ | númɔ̄ | jṹnũ̄ɔ̃̄kɛ̀ | ĩ́dɔ̄ |
| Samo, Maka (Toma)[21] | jǐ | to | ɲɛ̃ | sɔ | lɛwɔ | lɛ | mɑ̀ | wɛ | mú | dɑ | ɑ̀mɑ́mbíː | |
| Samo, Matya (Kouy)[21] | jɛrːɛ | toro | jiːni | sɔ̃ːnɛ | nɛnɛ | lɛ | mɪjɑ̀ | jɛrɛ | mú | dɑ́ | ɑnebɑ́rè | |
| Samo, Maya (Bounou)[21] | ɲoːnì; jɛrɛ | toro | ɲinijɛrɛ | so | leːnè | lɛ | mɑ̌ | jɑre | mu | dɑ | ɑfɑ́bjèrè | |
| Téén | hinbiye / hinbu | tenike / tenu | mɪtɪyaka / mɪtɪyɔ | kamaka / kaamʊ | delenge / delemu | nʊfɪya / nʊfɪyɔ | tɔbɔ (pl) | kpoloko / kpolowo | dɪyaa / dɪwɔ | ɔkɔ / ɔwɔ | dɪ | yɪraa / yɪrɔ |
| Toussian, South [9] | nyi / nyɛ | nigi / ni | mene / menenã | nyin / nyinɛ | nampar / namparnã | ṽiãʔ-lɛ / ṽiɛ-nɛ̃ | tõ | kəgbeke / kəgbal | sesuo-lɛ / sesar-lɛ | nĩ | nyõ | nyin |
| Toussian, North (Guéna-Kourinion)[9] | nyi / nyɔ | ni/nãn / ninã/nœnnã | mle / mlənã | nyen / nyennã | nenpüœra | via/ṽiã / wẽy | tiõ/tõ | kəble / kəblenâ | sepwel / sepyi | |||
| Siamou [9] | nya/nyábí/nyábi | tà-syẽ̀ / tàsyẽ̀ | már | nyèn / nyěn | dɛ / dɛ́ | kõ̀ / kẽ | tṍ | kpár / kpar | timõ / timẽ | nũ | di | ỹi |
| Mambar[9] | nyíí / nyíî | nyuweŋ / nyuwɛyɛ | munna / munnaʔa | gã / gãʔa | nyire / nyiree | nyu / nyüyi | ʃiʃi | katyiɣe / katyiye | ʃiɣe / ʃire | loeʔoe | di | mbaɣe / mbɛyɛ |
| Senar (Kankalaba)[9] | nyini / nyinyẽy | nupaɣa / nupay | funan / funãge | gẽ/gan / gãgẽ | nyini / nyirke | nyuɣu / nyuy | sisyẽkɛ | kayige / katyiye | tiɣe / tĩyi/tĩr | Dogo | di | mɛɣɛ |
| Tenyer[9] | yɛde/yade / yɛgyɛ/yagyɛ | dyigi / dyii | mənɛ / məligɛ | nkan / nhagal | nyinkan / nyẽhegal | nye / nyey | tuno | kyilige / kyileri | katyigi / katyir | lɔgɔ | di | migɛ / mii |
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[22]
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bariba | Baatonum (1) | tía | ìru | ìta | ǹnɛ | nɔɔbù | nɔɔbù ka tía > nɔɔbatía (ka = and) | nɔɔbù ka ìru > nɔɔbaìru | nɔɔbù ka ìta > nɔɔbaìta | nɔɔbù ka ǹnɛ > nɔɔbaǹnɛ | ɔkuru |
| Bariba | Baatonum (2) | tiā | yìru | ìta / yìta | ǹnɛ | nɔ̀ɔbù | nɔ̀ɔbâ tiā (5 + 1) | nɔ̀ɔbá yìru (5 + 2) | nɔ̀ɔbâ yìta (5 + 3) | nɔ̀ɔbâ ǹnɛ (5 + 4) | wɔkuru |
| Central Gur, Northern, Bwamu | Buamu | dòũ̀ | ɲuː | tĩː | náː | hònú | hèzĩ̀ː (5 + 1) | hèɲuː (5 + 2) | hètĩː (5 + 3) | dènú | pílú |
| Central Gur, Northern, Bwamu | Cwi Bwamu | dòòn | ńɲūūn | ńɔlĩ̄īn | ńnáā | hòó | hòódwĩ̀ (5 + 1) | hòòɲū (5 + 2) | hɔ̀ɔ̀ˀlĩ̄ (5 + 3) | dĩ̀í́ | ˀɓúrúù |
| Central Gur, Northern, Bwamu | Láá Láá Bwamu | dò | ńɲɔ | ńtĩ | ńnɛ́ | hùanú | hùezĩn (5 + 1) | hòoɲu (5 + 2) | hɔ̀ɔtĩ (5 + 3) | dĩ̀iní | píru |
| Central Gur, Northern, Kurumfe | Koromfé | -ndom / ɡadɔm | ɪhĩĩ | ɪtãã | ɪnãã | ɪnɔm | ɪhʊrʊ | ɪpɛ̃ɛ̃ | ɪtɔɔ | ɪfa | fi |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Buli-Koma | Buli | -yéŋ / wà-ɲī | bà-yɛ̀ | bà-tà | bà-nààsì | bà-nù | bà-yùèbì | bà-yòpɔ̄āī | nāāniŋ | nèūk | pī |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Buli-Koma | Konni | kààní | àbɛ́lí / àlî | àbátá / àtâ | àbánìsà / ànísà | àbánʊ̀ / ànʊ́ | ńyúóbìŋ | m̀pṍĩ̀ | ǹníŋ̀ / àníì | ŋ̀wɛ́ | m̀bâŋ |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Eastern | Biali | cə̄rə̄- / cə̄rə̄má (counting) | dyā | tāārī / tāārə̄ | nààsī / nààrə̄ | nùm | hã̀dwàm | pèléī | nēī | wáī | pwíɡə̄ |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Eastern | Ditammari (1) | -béé, dèǹnì (counting) | -dyá, dɛ́ɛ́, diání | -tããtī | -nàà | -nùmmù | -kūà | -yīēkà | -nì | -wɛ̄ | píítà |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Eastern | Ditammari (2) | denni | dɛɛni | tâati / tâadi | náà | numu | kuɔ | nyiekɛ | nni | nwɛi | tɛpiitɛ |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Eastern | Mbelime | yɛ̃nde | yēdē | tāātē | naasi | nummu | dūo | doodɛ̄ | ninyɛ̃̄ | wɛ̄ī | kɛ̄ piíkɛ |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Eastern | Waama | yòn | yɛ́ndí | táárí | náásì | nùn | k͡pàrùn | bérén | nɛ̃̀í | wɛ̃̀í | pííkà |
| Central Gur, Northern, Oti-Volta, Gurma | Gurma | yèndó | Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Gur_languages