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In Islam, Jahannam is the place of punishment for unbelievers and evildoers in the afterlife, or hell.[1] This notion is an integral part of Islamic theology,[1] and has occupied an important place in the Muslim belief.[2] It is often called by the proper name Jahannam.[a] However, "Jahannam" is simultaneously a term specifically for the uppermost layer of Hell.
The importance of Hell in Islamic doctrine is that it is an essential element of the Day of Judgment, which is one of the six articles of faith (belief in God, the angels, books, prophets, Day of Resurrection, and decree) "by which the Muslim faith is traditionally defined."[1]
Punishment and suffering in Hell, in mainstream Islam, is physical, psychological, and spiritual, and varies according to the sins of the condemned person.[9][10] Its excruciating pain and horror described in the Qur'an often parallels the pleasure and delights of Paradise (jannah).[11][12] It is commonly believed by Muslims that confinement to hell is temporary for Muslims but not for others,[13][Note 1] and Muslim scholars disagree over whether Hell itself will last for eternity (the majority's view),[15][16] or whether God's mercy will lead to it eventually being eliminated.[17]
The common belief among Muslims holds that Jahannam coexists with the temporal world, just as Jannah does[18] (rather than being created after Judgment Day). Hell is described physically in different ways by different sources of Islamic literature. It is enormous in size,[19][20] and located below Paradise.[21] It has seven levels, each one more severe than the one above it,[22][23][24][25][26] but it is also said to be a huge pit over which the bridge of As-Sirāt crosses and the resurrected walk.[27] It is said to have mountains, rivers, valleys and "even oceans" filled with disgusting fluids;[28] and also to be able to walk (controlled by reins),[29] and ask questions,[30] much like a sentient being.
Sources
Pre-Islamic: Hebrew Bible, New Testament, and Babylonian Talmud
In the Hebrew Bible, Gei-Hinnom or Gei-ben-Hinnom, the "Valley of Hinnom" is an accursed Valley in Jerusalem where child sacrifices took place. In the canonical Gospels, Jesus talks about Gehenna as a place "where the worm never dies and the fire is never quenched" (Mark 9:48). In the apocryphal book of 4 Ezra, written around the 2nd century BCE, Gehinnom appears as a transcendental place of punishment. This change comes to completion in the Babylonian Talmud, written around 500 CE.[32]
It can be thought that the narrative of Hell in Islam is largely shaped by the offerings of human sacrifices by passing it over fire or burning it to Molech, which the Torah describes as taking place in the Gehenna (Jeremiah 7; 32–35). While the Gehenna gives its name to Hell,[33] the fire used for the offerings turns into Hellfire, and Molech turns into Malik, the guardian of Hell in the Qur'anic narrative. (Q.43:77)[34]
Qur'an
According to Einar Thomassen, much of how Muslims picture and think about Jahannam comes from the Qur'an. He found nearly 500 references to Jahannam in it, using a variety of names.[35][Note 2]
The following is an example of the Qur'anic verses about Hell:
- Surely the day of decision is (a day) appointed:
- The day on which the trumpet shall be blown so you shall come forth in hosts,
- And the heaven shall be opened so that it shall be all openings,
- And the mountains shall be moved off so that they shall remain a mere semblance.
- Surely hell lies in wait,
- A place of resort for the inordinate,
- Living therein for ages.
- They shall not taste therein cool nor drink
- But boiling and intensely cold water,
- Requital corresponding.
- Surely they feared not the account,
- And called Our communications a lie, giving the lie (to the truth).
- And We have recorded everything in a book,
- So taste! For We will not add to you aught but chastisement. (Q.78:17–30)[39]
Among the different terms and phrases mentioned above that refer to Hell in the Qur'an, Fire (nār) is used 125 times, Hell (jahannam) 77 times, and Blazing Fire (jaḥīm) 26 times,[40] or 23 by another count.[41]
The description of Jahannam as a place of blazing fire appears in almost every verse in the Qur'an describing Hell.[42] One collection[43] of descriptions of Hell found in the Qur'an include "rather specific indications of the tortures of the Fire": flames that crackle and roar;[44] fierce, boiling waters,[45] scorching wind, and black smoke,[46] roaring and boiling as if it would burst with rage.[47]
Hell is described as being located below Paradise,[48][21] having seven gates and "for every gate there shall be a specific party" of sinners (Q.15:43–44).[25][8][24] The Qur'an also mentions wrongdoers having "degrees (or ranks) according to their deeds",[49] (which some scholars believe refers to the "specific parties" at each of the gates);[40] and of there being "seven heavens ˹in layers˺, and likewise for the earth" (Q.65:12),[50] (though this doesn't indicate that the seven layers of earth are hell). The one mention of levels of hell is that hypocrites will be found in its very bottom.[40][51]
Disbelievers
According to Thomassen, those specifically mentioned in the Qur'an as being punished in Hell are "most typically" disbelievers (kāfirūn). These include people who lived during Muhammad's time, the polytheists (mushrikūn), or enemies of Muhammad who worshiped idols (Q.10:24), and the "losers", or enemies of Muhammad who died in war against him (Q.21:70), as well as broad categories of sinners: the apostates (murtaddūn; Q.3:86–87), hypocrites (munafiqūn; Q.4:140), self-content (Q.10:7–8, 17:18),[52] polytheists (mushrikūn; Q.4:48,116), and those who do not believe in certain key doctrines of Islam: those who deny the divine origin of the Qur'an (Q.74:16–26) or the coming of Judgement Day (Q.25:11–14).[52]
Committers of major sins
In addition are those who have committed serious criminal offenses against other human beings: the murder of a believer (Q.4:93, 3:21), usury (Q.2:275), devouring the property of an orphan (Q.4:10), and slander (Q.104), particularly of a chaste woman (Q.24:23).[11]
Biblical and historical individuals
Some prominent people mentioned in hadith and the Qur'an as suffering in Hell or destined to suffer there are: Pharaoh (Firʿawn; the pharaoh of The Exodus; Q:10:90-92), the wives of Noah and Lot (Q:66–10), and Abu Lahab and his wife, who were contemporaries and enemies of Muhammad (Q:111).[53] [54][55]
Punishments
The punishments of Hell described in the Qur'an tend to revolve around "skin sensation and digestion". [52] Its wretched inhabitants sigh and wail,[56] their scorched skins are constantly exchanged for new ones so that they can taste the torment anew,[57] drink festering water and though death appears on all sides they cannot die.[58] They are linked together in chains of 70 cubits,[59] wearing pitch for clothing and fire on their faces[60] have boiling water that will be poured over their heads, melting their insides as well as their skins, and hooks of iron to drag them back if they should try to escape,[61] and their remorseful admissions of wrongdoing and pleading for forgiveness are in vain.[62][63][64]
Hell's resemblance to a prison is strong. Inmates have chains around their necks (Q.13:5, 34:33, 36:8, 76:4, etc.), are "tethered" by hooks of iron (Q.22:21), and are guarded by "merciless angels" (zabāniyyah; Q.66:6, 96:18).[52]
Its immates will be thirsty and hungry "constantly".[52] Their fluids will include boiling water (Q.6:70), melted brass, and/or be bitterly cold, "unclean, full of pus".[65] In addition to fire (Q.2:174), it has three different unique sources of food:
- Ḍari, a dry desert plant that is full of thorns and fails to relieve hunger or sustain a person (Q88:6);[66][67][68]
- Ghislin, which is only mentioned once (in Q69:36, which states that it is the only nourishment in hell);[68][69]
- Heads of devils hanging from the tree of Zaqqum that "springs out of the bottom of Hell".[70][40] (These are mentioned three[68] or four times: Q.17:60 (as the "cursed tree"),[71] Q.37:62-68,[72] Q.44:43,[73] Q.56:52.)[74]
Psychological torments are humiliation (Q.3:178) and listening to "sighs and sobs". (Q.11:106).[52]
There are at least a couple of indications that physical rather than "spiritual or psychological" punishment predominates in jahannam according to scholars Smith and Haddad. For example, the Quran notes that inmates of jahannam will be denied the pleasure of "gazing on the face of God", but nowhere does it state "that this loss contributed to the agony" the inmates experience. When the Quran describes the regret the inmates express for the deeds that put them in hell, it is "for the consequences" of the deeds "rather than for the actual commission of them".[75]
Hadith
There are "scores" of narrations or "short narratives traced back to the Prophet or his Companions" from "the third/ninth century onwards", that "greatly elaborate" on the Quranic image of hell.[76]
Organization, size, and guards
Similarly to how the Qur'an speaks of the seven gates of Hell,[50] "relatively early" narrations attest that Hell has seven levels. This interpretation became "widespread" in Islam.[24] The bridge (ṣirāṭ) over Hell that all resurrected souls must cross is mentioned in several narrations.[77]
Some hadith describe the size of hell as enormous. It is so deep that if a stone were thrown into it, it would fall for 70 years before reaching the bottom (according to one hadith).[19] Another states that the breadth of each of Hell's walls is equivalent to a distance covered by a walking journey of 40 years.[19] According to another source (Qurṭubī) it takes "500 years" to get from one of its levels to another.[20]
Traditions often describe this in multiples of seven: hell has seventy thousand valleys, each with "seventy thousand ravines, inhabited by seventy thousand serpents and scorpions".[78]
According to one hadith, hell will be vastly more populous than Paradise. Out of every one thousand people entering into the afterlife, nine hundred and ninety-nine of them will end up in the fire.[79][80][81] (According to at least one scholarly salafi interpretation, the hadith expresses the large disparity between the number of saved and damned rather than a specific literal ratio.)[82]
Malik in Hadith quotes Mohammed as saying that the "fire of the children of Adam which they kindle is a seventieth part of the fire of Jahannam."[83] He also describes that fire as "blacker than tar".[84]
In book 87 Hadith 155, "Interpretation of Dreams" of Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad is reported to have talked of angels guarding hell, each with "a mace of iron", and describes Jahannam as a place
"built inside like a well and it had side posts like those of a well, and beside each post there was an angel carrying an iron mace. I saw therein many people hanging upside down with iron chains, and I recognized therein some men from the Quraish".[85]
Punishments
Hadiths introduce punishments, reasons and revelations not mentioned in the Quran. In both Quranic verses and hadiths, "the Fire" is "a gruesome place of punishment that is always contrasted with Jannah, "the Garden" (paradise). Whatever characteristic "the Garden offered, the Fire usually offered the opposite conditions."[86] Several hadith describes a part of hell that is extremely cold rather than hot, known as Zamhareer.[87]
According to Bukhari, lips are cut by scissors. Other traditions added flogging. An Uighur manuscript also mentions drowning, stoning and falling from heights.[88] Based on hadiths, the sinners are thought to carry signs in accordance with their sins.[50]
Inmates and their sins
Hadith describe types of sinners populating hell. Seven sins doom a person to Hell, according to reports of as-Saheehayn, (i.e. the reports of the two most esteemed Sunni hadith collections: al-Bukhaari and Muslim): "Associating others with Allah (shirk or idolatry); witchcraft; killing a soul whom Allah has forbidden us to kill, except in cases dictated by Islamic law; consuming orphans' wealth; consuming riba (usury); fleeing from the battlefield; and slandering chaste, innocent women."[89][90][91][92]
According to a series of hadith, Muhammad claims the majority of the inhabitants of hell will be women, due to an inclination for gossip, conjecture, ungratefulness of kind treatment from their spouses and idle chatting.[93][94][95][96][Note 3] The Salafi Muslim scholar ʿUmar Sulaymān al-Ashqar (d. 2012) reaffirms the arguments of al-Qurṭubī, that women have an attachment to the here and now, inability to control their passions; but allows that despite this, many women are good and pious and will go to Paradise, and some are even superior to many men in piety.[100]
However, other hadith imply that the majority of people in paradise will be women.[101] Since the number of men and women are approximately equal, al-Qurṭubī attempts to reconcile the conflicting hadith by suggesting that many of the women in Hell are there only temporarily and will eventually be brought reside in Paradise; thereafter the majority of the people of Paradise would be women.[102][Note 4]
Other people populating hell mentioned in hadith include, but are not limited to, the mighty, the proud and the haughty.[103] Einar Thomassen writes that this almost certainly refers to those too proud and haughty to submit to God, i.e. unbelievers[52] (the literal translation of Muslim is one who submits to God).
Sahih Muslim quotes Muhammad as saying that suicides would reside in Jahannam forever.[104] According to the hadith collection Muwaṭṭaʾ of Imam Mālik (711–795), Muhammad said: "Truly a man utters words to which he attaches no importance, and by them he falls into the fire of Jahannam."[105]
Al-Bukhari in book 72:834 added to the list of dwellers in Jahannam: "The people who will receive the severest punishment from Allah will be the picture makers".[106][107] Use of utensils made of precious metals could also land its users in Jahannam: "A person who drinks from a silver vessel brings the fire of Jahannam into his belly".[108] As could starving a cat to death: "A woman was tortured and was put in Hell because of a cat which she had kept locked till it died of hunger."[109][110]
At least one hadith indicates the importance of faith in avoiding hell, stating: "... no one will enter Hell in whose heart is an atom's weight of faith."[Note 5]
Eschatological manuals
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"Eschatological manuals" were written after the hadith, they compiled the hadith on hell,[76] and also developed descriptions of Jahannam "in more deliberate ways".[115] While the Quran and hadith tend to describe punishments that nonbelievers are forced to give themselves, the manuals illustrate external and more dramatic punishment, through devils, scorpions, and snakes.[116]
Manuals dedicated solely to the subject of Jahannam include Ibn Abi al-Dunya's Sifat al-nar, and al-Maqdisi's Dhikr al-nar. [Note 6] Other manuals—such as texts by al-Ghazali and the 12th-century scholar Qadi Ayyad – "dramatise life in the Fire", and present "new punishments, different types of sinners, and the appearance of a multitude of devils," to exhort the faithful to piety.[8] His hell has a structure with a specific place for each type of sinners.[116]
According to Leor Halevi, between the moment of death and the time of their burial ceremony, "the spirit of a deceased Muslim takes a quick journey to Heaven and Hell, where it beholds visions of the bliss and torture awaiting humanity at the end of days".[117]
In The Soul's Journey After Death, Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya, a theologian in the 14th century, writes explicitly of punishments faced by sinners and unbelievers in Jahannam. These are directly related to the wrongdoer's earthly transgressions.[118]
Inmates and their sins
In addition to those who engage in traditional sins of wine drinking, fornication, sodomy, suicide, atheism (dahriyya); hell is where those "who sleep during prayer (or speak of worldly matters during it),[119][120] or deny the doctrine of predestinarianism or assert absolute free-will (Qadarites), are punished.[121][122] Another tradition consigns to the seven different levels of hell, seven different types of "mischievous" Islamic scholars.[123] Government authorities are also threatened with hell, but often in "oblique ways".[124]
Location and topography
Location
There are many traditions on the location of paradise and hell, but not all of them "are easily pictured or indeed mutually reconcilable".[125] For example, some describe hell as in the lowest earth, while one scholar (Al-Majlisī) describes hell as "surrounding" the earth.[126] Islamic scholars speculated on where the entrance to hell might be located. Some thought the sea was the top level,[127][128] or that the sulphourus well in Hadramawt (in present-day Yemen), allegedly haunted by the souls of the wicked, was the entrance to the underworld. Others considered the entrance in the valley of Hinnom (surrounding the Old City of Jerusalem). In a Persian work, the entry to hell is located in a gorge called Wadi Jahannam (in present-day Afghanistan).[50]
Seven levels
Einar Thomassen writes that the seven levels of hell mentioned in hadith "came to be associated" with the seven names used in the Quran to refer to hell, with a category of inmates assigned to each level.
- Jahannam was reserved for Muslims who had committed grave sins.
- al-Laza (the blaze)
- al-Hutama (the consuming fire)
- al-Sa'ir
- al-Saqar (the scorching fire)
- al-jahim (the hot place)
- al-Hawiya (the abyss) for the hypocrites.[24]
"Various similar models exist with a slightly differing order of names", according to Christian Lange, and he and A. F. Klein give similar lists of levels. Al-Laza and al-Saqar are switched in Lange's list, and there is no accompanying type of unbelievers for each level.[50] In A. F. Klein's list, it is the names of the levels that's not included, and instead of a level for Zoroastrians there is one for "witches and fortunetellers".[13] [Note 7]
Another description of the layers of hell comes from "models such as that recorded by al-Thalabi (died 427/1035)" corresponding to "the seven earths of medieval Islamic cosmology";[50][Note 8] the place of hell before the Day of Resurrection.[129] This idea derives from the concept of "seven earths", each beneath the surface of the known world, serving as a sort of underworld, with hell at its bottom. Sources Miguel Asin Palacios and Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes describe these levels as:
- Adim (surface), inhabited by mankind and jinn.
- Basit (plain), the prison of winds, from where the winds come from.
- Thaqil (region of distress), the antechamber of hell, in which dwell men with the mouth of a dog, the ears of a goat and the cloven hoof of an ox.
- Batih (place of torrents or swamps), a valley through which flows a stream of boiling sulphur to torment the wicked. The dweller in this valley have no eyes and in place of feet, have wings.
- Hayn (region of adversity), in which serpents of enormous size devour the infidels.
- Masika/Sijjin (store or dungeon), the office where sins are recorded and where souls are tormented by scorpions of the size of mules. In tafsir, this place is sometimes considered the lowest place instead.
- As-Saqar (place of burning) and Athara (place of damp and great cold) the home of Iblis, who is chained, his hand fastened one in front of and the other behind him, except when set free by God to chastise his demons.
A large number of hadith about Muhammad's tour of hell during the miʿrāj, describe the various sinners and their torments. A summary of the uppermost level of hell, "reserved for deadly sins" and "subdivided into fourteen mansions, one close above the other, and each is a place of punishment for a different sin", was done by Asin Palacios:[130]
Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=JahannamThe first mansion is an ocean of fire comprising seventy lesser seas, and on the shore of each sea stands a city of fire. In each city are seventy thousand dwellings; in each dwelling, seventy thousand coffins of fire, the tombs of men and women, who, stung by snakes and scorpions, shriek in anguish. These wretches, the Keeper enlightens Mahomet, were tyrants.
In the second mansion beings with blubber lips writhe under the red-hot forks of demons, while serpents enter their mouths and eat their bodies from within. These are faithless guardians, devoured now by serpents even as they once devoured the inheritances committed to their trust. Lower down usurers stagger about, weighed down by the reptiles in their bellies. Further, shameless women hang by the hair that they had exposed to the gaze of man. Still further down liars and slanderers hang by their tongues from red-hot hooks lacerating their faces with nails of copper. Those who neglected the rites of prayer and ablution are now monsters with the head of dogs and the bodies of swine and are the food of serpents. In the next mansion drunkards suffer the torture of raging thirst, which demons affect to quench with cups of a liquid fire that burns their entrails. Still lower, hired mourners and professional women singers hang head downwards and howl with pain as devils cut their tongues with burning shears. Adulterers are punished in a cone-shaped furnace... and their shrieks are drowned by the curses of their fellow damned at the stench of their putrid flesh. In the next mansion unfaithful wives hang by their breasts, their hands tied to their necks. Undutiful children are tortured in a fire by fiends with red-hot forks. Lower down, shackled in collars of fire, are those who failed to keep their word. Murderers are being knifed by demons in endless expiation of their crime. Lastly, in the fourteenth and lowest mansion of the first storey, are being crucified on burning pillars those who failed to keep the rule of prayer; as the flames devour them, their flesh is seen gradually to peel off their bones.[130] [131][132]
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