Principality of Herat شاهزاده‌نشین هرات
1793–1863
First is the flag of Herat from 1818 until 1842, the second is the flag of Herat in 1856, when Mohammad Yusuf and 'Isa Khan declared Herat a vassal of Britain and hoisted the British flag
Map of Herat at its height in 1848
Capital	Herat
Languages	Persian (primary), Pashto, Turkmen, Balochi
Ethnic groups	Durrani Pashtuns, Ghilzai Pashtuns, Farsiwan, Qizilbash, Aimaq, Tajiks, Hazaras, Jews, Hindus, Baloch, Sistanis, Turkmen, Uzbeks, Armenians
Religion	Sunni Islam, Shia Islam with Judaism and Hinduism as a minority
Demonym(s)	Herati
Government	Unitary Absolute monarchy
Emir
• 1793–1797 (first)	Mahmud Shah Durrani
• March–May 1863 (last)	Shah Navaz Khan
Establishment	1793, independent state established
History
• Tributary to Iran	1804
• Independent state	1818
• Dependent on Iran	1856
• Disestablished	1863
• Established	1793
• Disestablished	1863
Preceded by Succeeded by Durrani Empire Emirate of Afghanistan
Today part of	Iran Afghanistan Turkmenistan

The Principality of Herat^[1][2][3] (Persian: شاهزاده‌نشین هرات), the Emirate of Herat^[4] (Persian: امارت هرات), the Herat Khanate^[5] (Persian: خان‌نشین هرات) or simply Herat (Persian: هرات) was a state in Afghanistan from 1793 to 1863, and one of the 3 main khanates in 19th century Afghanistan (the others being the Khanates of Kabul and Qandahar).

In 1793, Timur Shah Durrani died and Mahmud Shah took control of Herat, becoming independent.^[6] In 1801, the principality was revived by Firuz al-Din Mirza. Herat was prosperous under his reign in spite of multiple Iranian invasions.^[5] In 1818, Mahmud and later Kamran Shah took over, attempting to keep the region stable as a buffer between the Barakzais and Qajars. However, the region was devastated by constant infighting and Iranian invasions.

The Iranian invasion of 1837 weakened the principality, eventually allowing Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai to overthrow the last ruler, Kamran Shah Durrani, in 1842, and expand the principality's borders towards the Chahar Wilayat, Aimaq territory, and Lash-Joveyn. With his death in 1851 the principality began to decline due to a series of incompetent rulers as well as a civil war and an Iranian invasion in 1856.

The weakening of the principality allowed the Barakzais to intervene and besiege Herat. Ultimately they were able to capture the city on May 27, 1863, ending Herat's existence as an independent state.^[7][6]

History

First Reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani (1793–1801)

Death of Timur Shah

When Timur Shah died on May 18^[8][6][9] or May 21,^[10] 1793, Afghanistan fell into civil war. Timur Shah had 25 sons.^[8] 5 of those would become contenders for power in the following years. Zaman Shah was to be the successor of Timur Shah and was crowned on May 23.^[9] However, two of Zaman Shah's relatives would oppose his ascension to the throne. Humayun Mirza (the governor of Qandahar) opposed Zaman Shah's claim to the throne and rebelled upon receiving news of Timur Shah's death.^[6][7][9][8] In addition to this, Mahmud Mirza rebelled in Herat and minted coins in the name of the dead Timur Shah.^[6] On June 19, Zaman Shah marched out of Kabul headed for Qandahar. He soon captured Qandahar and forced Humayun Mirza to flee to Baluchistan.^[9][8][7]

First Attempt at Gaining Qandahar (1795)

Zaman Shah, seeing Mahmud as a future threat if the Persians had ever invaded again, had decided to try and retake Herat and strip Mahmud of his administrative titles. Zaman Shah had met Mahmud Shah at a battle near Girishk. Zaman Shah defeated Mahmud Shah and this allowed him to besiege Herat. The city however, held out. Eventually, Mahmud Shah's mother had broken a deal between the two brothers. The terms of which would be Zaman Shah being recognized as King of the Durrani Empire in exchange for keeping his governorship of Herat. However, nobody had seemed to give notice to Mahmud's son, Kamran Mirza. Kamran, noticing Zaman Shah leaving back to Helmand, had led his armies in pursuit, and once he had left, Qilij Khan, the governor of Herat in place for Kamran while he was on his campaign had led a rebellion and opened the gates to Zaman Shah. Mahmud and Kamran then fled to Tehran.^[7]

Second Attempt at Gaining Qandahar and Exile (1797–98)

During Zaman Shah's campaigns in Punjab against the Sikhs, the British had seen this as a threat, where Zaman Shah could align the Muslim powers of India against the British in a coalition, as a result, the British had given 10,000 rupees to the Shah of Persia.^[11] Seeing opportunity, Mahmud Shah, along with his brother, Firoz Mirza, had mobilized and marched on Farah and Herat. Instead of the Shah joining directly, he supported Mahmud and Firoz. The two princes captured Farah, and also defeated Qaizar Mirza, Zaman Shah's son, and also besieged Herat. Zaman Shah had abandoned his Punjab campaign and pulled back to Peshawar, the Sikhs recaptured Lahore as a result of this.^[11] Despite Herat in large support of Mahmud Shah, Qaizar had held out. In an attempt to undermine the Persian alliance, Qaizar's Wazir had sent a letter to Mahmud Shah's ally, Mir Ali, and had offered to assassinate Mahmud Shah.^[11] However Mahmud's spies intercepted this message, Mahmud Shah and Kamran were completely deceived, and fled in the dead of the night. The following morning, seeing that Mahmud and Kamran had fled, chaos erupted in the camp, and taking advantage of this, Qaizar had marched out, and routed the Persian army from besieging Herat.^[12] Following this victory, Zaman Shah had returned to Punjab, recapturing Lahore and also placed Ranjit Singh, as an attempt to divide the Sikhs as the nawab of Lahore, and Zaman had returned to Peshawar.^[12]

Reign of Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza (1801–1818)

Ascension to the Throne and Early Challenges (1801–1804)

With Mahmud Mirza's restoration to the throne on 25 July 1801, Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza was appointed the governor of Herat. However, due to the internal conflicts in Afghanistan at the time, he became effectively independent.^[13]

The Qajars had conquered Khorasan relatively recently from Nader Mirza Afshar and other independent Khorasani chieftains. On December 24, 1803, Mashhad fell to Qajar's troops and the 15-year-old Mohammad Vali Mirza was appointed governor.^[6] His government was weak, however, he was dependent on the powerful Qara'i chieftain of Turbat-i Heydarieh, Ishaq Khan, to keep his rule stable.^[6] Ishaq was easily able to take advantage of this weakness to expand his dominion at the expense of his neighbors. The Herati-Iranian wars of 1804, 1807, and 1811 were fought over the strategic border fort of Ghourian, as the Qara'i chieftains sought to use the rivalry between Mashhad and Herat to their own advantage.^[6]

Conflict Over Ghourian (1804–1813)

In December 1804, Ishaq Khan Qara'i seized Ghourian from Firuz al-Din Mirza.^[6] He appointed his nephew Yusuf 'Ali Khan Qara'i as governor.^[14][6][8] He was able to exert his influence in the regions of Jam and Bakharz and in a crucial location to get involved in matters with Herat.^[6]

In 1807, Yusuf 'Ali Khan defected to Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza and abandoned the Qara'i chieftain. He had been encouraging Firuz al-Din Mirza to conquer Khorasan for some time.^[8] Therefore, the Vali of Khorasan, Mohammad Vali Mirza, marched with an army to recapture Khorasan in the spring of 1807.^[14][7] Iranian sources blame the preacher Sufi Eslam and other Afghan mullahs for instigating Firuz al-Din to declare war on the Iranians,^[6] for Firuz al-Din's advisors were against fighting with Iran.^[14] When Firuz al-Din heard of the approach of the Iranian troops, his support for war faded and his general Badal Khan Afghan preferred submitting to the Iranian government.^[6]

However, in the end, Firuz sided with Sufi Eslam's war party (composed of Afghan and Aimaq chieftains). Firuz managed to obtain a fatwa that declared the war against Iran as a jihad. Sufi Eslam called upon 50,000 infantry and cavalry to oppose the Iranian advance.^[14][6][8] Thousands of Aimaqs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens joined his army to fight the holy war against the Iranians. Sufi Eslam was given command of the army. Reportedly, Sufi Eslam was placed in a golden howdah with 366 bodyguards (corresponding to the days in a year) around him.^[8] The Iranian army was composed of 14,000 infantry and cavalry with 12 pieces of artillery.^[14]

The Qajar army encamped at the village of Shahdih, led by Mohammad Khan Qara'i.^[14] On May 19,^[10] May 30,^[14] June,^[7] or June 29, 1807,^[6][8] the Herati army reached the Rubat Charkah field and attacked the Qajars, beginning the battle of Shahdih.^[14] The Herati army was annihalated^{[7][6][5][14]} (with between 3,800^[14] and 6,000^[6] Afghan troops killed) and Sufi Eslam was beheaded by a cannonball. The Iranians then besieged Herat for 40 days before Firuz al-Din capitulated and sent 3 years of taxes to the Iranian government.^[14]

In 1811, Firuz al-Din Mirza refused to pay his annual tribute to Iran.^[14] As a result, in July 1811^[6] Mohammad Vali Mirza marched from Bakharz to Ghourian, and from there to Pul-i Nuqrah. He gave the order to sack the surrounding area, forcing Firuz al-Din to come to peace terms. He paid his taxes to the Iranian government and promised to pay his yearly tribute. In addition to this Firuz sent his son, Malik Husayn Mirza, as a hostage.^[14]

Khorasan Rebellion and War with Iran (1813–1818)

In the summer of 1813 relations between Mohammad Vali Mirza, the governor of Khorasan, and the Khorasani tribal chieftains worsened.^[6] Eventually, the khans held a conference on the Turkmen steppe where they decided to revolt and depose Mohammad Vali Mirza. On August 25, 1813, Ishaq Khan Qara'i and his forces sacked the royal stables at Chenaran,^[6] beginning what would be a 5-year long revolt. The Qara'i Turks, Za'faranlu Kurds, the Aimaq Hazaras of Bakharz and Jam, and other tribal groups participated in the revolt.

In 1814, Firuz al-Din took advantage of the chaos in Khorasan to renew his designs on Ghourian at the urging of Ebrahim Khan Ilkhani Hazara. Firuz's son, Malik Qasim Manda, marched to Ghourian with a large army and besieged it.^[15] Since the governor of Ghourian, Sardar Mohammad Khan Qara'i, had no hope of aid from Iran, he requested help from Shah Mahmud to defeat Firuz al-Din Mirza. Mahmud sent his son and governor of Qandahar, Kamran Mirza, with a large army to attack Herat.^[14][6]

Kamran Mirza surrounded Herat and set up camp in the village of Ruzah Bagh. As a result, Firuz al-Din withdrew from Ghourian and requested aid from the Qajar general Isma'il Khan Damghani, promising to pay 50,000 tuman and have the khutbah read in the name of Fath 'Ali Shah.^[14][5] As a result, when Qajar troops approached Herat and attacked Kamran Mirza's troops, he did not even attempt a defense and retreated back to Qandahar. Firuz al-Din then fulfilled his promise and paid Isma'il Khan Damghani 50,000 tuman.^[14][6]

In the Summer of 1816 Ishaq Khan Qara'i and his son were strangled on the orders of Mohammad Vali Mirza due to his secret support of the Khorasani rebels.^[6] As a result, this made his situation worse and as stated by Riyazi: "In the year 1231 A.H, equivalent to 1815 A.D., due to the killing of the late Sardar Muhammad Ishaq Khan Qara'i and Hasan 'Isa Khan, his son, the state of affairs in Khurasan and its frontiers became chaotic. The tribal chiefs and leaders of the inhabitants of each locality and clan revolted."^[14] Firuz al-Din used the revolt as an opportunity to seize Ghourian.^[14][6] Mohammad Khan Qajar was defeated by an alliance between Mohammad Khan Qara'i and Bunyad Khan Hazara and fled to Mashhad.^[6] Bunyad Khan Hazara then raided the city's suburbs.^[14] When Fath 'Ali Shah heard of the loss of Ghourian, he recalled Mohammad Vali Mirza and appointed Hasan 'Ali Mirza "Shuja al-Saltana" as governor, sending 10,000 men with him to put Khorasan back in order.^[14][6]

On April 4, 1817, Hasan 'Ali Mirza marched towards Herat with the support of the Za'faranlu and Qara'i tribes.^[6] The Qajar army marched through the district of Jam and took the fort of Mahmudabad.^[16] A day later Jam was occupied and the Qajars killed so many Hazaras that they were able to create a tower of skulls.^[6] Hasan 'Ali Mirza then marched towards Ghourian and then reached the village of Shakiban and set camp at Pul-i Nuqrah. Firuz al-Din's troops and some Afghan sipahis set up earthworks outside the Citadel of Herat and prepared to defend the city.^[14] Hasan 'Ali Mirza ordered half of the army to attack and the other half to set up earthworks behind the Injil River. After repreated attacked by Iranian forces, Firuz al-Din capitulated and sent 50,000 tuman in tribute as well as agreeing to read the Khutbah in the name of Fath 'Ali Shah.^[14]

The prince then marched into the territory of the Aimaq tribes, to punish the Aimaq Hazaras for hosting Bunyad Khan as a refugee from Iranian troops. However, in the summer of 1817 they were defeated at Darra-yi Bum and forced to retreat.^[6]

Fateh Khan's rule and deposition of Shah Mahmud (April 1818–Late 1818)

Firuz al-Din requested aid against the Iranian invasion. As a result, Fateh Khan Barakzai took the opportunity to conquer Herat. At the end of April 1818 he entered Herat and deposed Firuz al-Din Shah.^[7] He sent his half brother Kohandil Khan towards Ghourian and made alliances with Khiva and the Qara'is and the Hazaras of the province.^[6]

Second Reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani (1818–1829)

Restored Reign and Disputes with Saleh Khan and Kamran Sadozai (1818–1821)

After the Barakzais expelled him from Qandahar in 1818, Mahmud Shah fled to Farah and then to Herat. Reportedly, he reached Herat with only 11 men under his command.^[17] Mahmud Shah, when reaching Herat, turned over its administration to Kamran Mirza, who also consulted him on political matters.^[5] Ata Mohammad Khan Alakozai also became the vazir of Herat.^[6]

In 1819, Saleh Khan, a noble who gained favour with Kamran, tried to convince him to reconquer Qandahar. However, Kamran said he didn't have enough money and blamed Saleh Khan for his past troubles. Mahmud and Kamran Shah both united to extort Saleh Khan, and in response Saleh Khan secretly sent a letter to Firuz al-Din Mirza (the previous ruler of Herat who was in exile in Mashhad), and invited him to claim the throne.^[5] Together they both marched on Farah, a city in the south controlled by a supporter of Kamran, and captured it. Saleh Khan was able to make a compromise where he would control Farah and Firuz al-Din Mirza would return into exile in Mashhad.^[5]

Iranian Invasions and Revolt of Mustafa Khan Zori (1821–1823)

Ever since 1816, Herat had refused to pay tribute to Persia. Kamran Mirza made multiple excuses on why he wasn't able to pay.^[5] In addition to that, Herat had actively supported the revolt of Banyad Khan Hazara (the Hazara chieftain of Jam and Bakharz). On June 25, 1821, a Qajar force of 3,000^[8] shattered Banyad Khan's Jamshidi, Hazara, and Firozkohi troops at the battle of Kariz.^[8][6] He was pursued into the lands of the Chahar Aimaq. In 1822, Iranian forces invaded Herat and besieged the city, aiming to restore Firuz al-Din to the throne.^[17] In the process, Ibrahim Khan Jamshidi,^[14] Khalil Khan Taymani,^[17] and Qilich Khan Timuri (one of the leaders on the Iranian side and the autonomous governor of Khvaf) were killed during a battle on May 22.^[6][18] In the end, Herat withstood the siege by Iranian forces. However, although the Qajar troops had ravaged the province dearly it doesn't seem to have much of an effect on Kamran, as within a year or two he was to attack Qandahar.^[5]

In the Islamic year 1238 (equivalent to October 1822 to September 1823)^[14] or 1824,^[5] Kamran Mirza attempted to conquer Qandahar, leaving the administration of Herat in the hands of Husain Khan and Mustafa Khan Zori. However, while Kamran was on route to Qandahar, allies of Firuz al-Din placed him back on the throne.^[5][17] However, Mahmud was soon able to convince them to desert Firuz and install him instead, thus ending Firuz al-Din's 18 day rule.^[5] Firuz al-Din Mirza would flee to the city of Torshiz after being deposed. In the Islamic year 1247 A.H. (June 12, 1831 – May 30, 1832), he would be assassinated at the instigation of Kamran Shah.^[14]

When Kamran Shah returned from Qandahar, Mahmud refused to let him back in. As a result, Kamran, with the support of the Qandahar Sardars, besieged Herat.^[5] Mahmud then recruited the help of Saleh Khan, who sent Mustafa Khan Zori to break the siege of the city. They were successful, but Mustafa Khan then turned against his allies, imprisoned Saleh Khan, and forced Mahmud Shah out the city. However, Kamran and Mahmud Shah then united against Mustafa Khan and within a month^[17] deposed him. In the winter of 1824 Mustafa Khan was executed.^[5] Kamran Mirza put a paper hat on Mustafa Khan's head and then poured lamp oil on top of it.^[14] In the Islamic year 1240 (August 1824 to August 1825), Mahmud Shah marched into Jamshidi lands and occupied Bala Murghab.^[14]

Civil War in Herat and final victory of Kamran Shah (1823–1829)

After Mustafa Khan's death, Mahmud Shah and Kamran Shah immediately started fighting each other for control. Mahmud fled to Khwaja Ansari's tomb at Gazurgah, and then 6 months later fled across the Murghab to seek the aid of the Jamshidi tribes. Kamran Shah needed help, so he requested the aid of Iran. In July 1826^[6] Hasan Ali Mirza Qajar sent 6,000^[10] or 10,000 men^[5] with 4 guns^[10] to the aid of Kamran Shah. When they reached Herat on July 16, 1826,^[18] they combined with 2,000 of Kamran's troops and marched towards the Murghab. However, spies leaked Kamran's plans to Mahmud, who set up an ambush. The Aimaqs and Uzbeks completely routed the Iranians, and Mahmud marched onward to Herat.^[10] However, Mahmud refused to storm the citadel, instead camping outside, meaning that "all the benefit of the Badghis victory quickly dissipated"^[10] and his siege of Herat failed.

Mahmud fled to the Hazaras of Qala-e Naw but Kamran sent an army after him. The Herati army starved the Hazaras of supplies and forced them to hand over Mahmud. However, he fled to Lash-Juwain rather than being taken prisoner.^[5][14] In 1827 Kamran took pity on Mahmud and invited him back to Herat. In 1828–29 Ata Muhammad Khan Alakozai died. His son, Sardar Din Muhammad Khan Alakozai, succeeded him as vazir. However, due to the courtiers being against this appointment, he was forced to give up the viziership to his 40-year-old^[5] cousin, Yar Muhammad Khan Alakozai.^[17] The first act Yar Mohammad Khan did in 1829 was to depose Mahmud Shah, who died shortly after.^[6] Kamran then became the ruler.

Reign of Kamran Shah (1829–1842)

Kamran Shah was initially a generous ruler when he first came to Herat. He spent time into ruling his kingdom in his early years.^[19] But after fighting with multiple contenders to gain the throne, his personality changed and he became more demanding.^[5] Kamran was well known for his greed, and became obsessed on obtaining more and more wealth.^[19] He imposed heavy taxes upon the populace, as he "not only bathed himself in luxury, but he also built up a large war chest to meet any threat to his power from Iran or from Kabul."^[5] He developed a variety of ways to extract wealth that included at least 4 different methods of torture.^[19] As Kamran got older, he spent more and more time chasing pleasure. He would use his power to embark on numerous sexual adventures involving both boys and girls, as well as drinking copious amounts of alcohol.^[19] However, the populace still preferred him rather than be under the suzerainty of the Barakzais, as they were even more despotic.^[5]

Kamran was in a power struggle with his Vizier, Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai. His attempts at usurping Kamran's throne were only prevented due to the efforts of Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara (the chieftain of the Qala e Naw Hazaras) was unquestionably loyal to Kamran Shah and had prevented Yar Mohammad Khan from overthrowing him. As a result, he was granted the title of Nizam al-Daula (نظام الدوله).^[10] In addition to this, the British also supported Kamran Shah as an attempt to prevent the Iranians from conquering the region.

Involvement in the Second Khorasan Rebellion and Persian Invasion (1829–1833)

Herat supported a rebellion in Qajar Khorasan at the time. The local chieftains (mainly of the Qara'i and Za'faranlu) rebelled, and were in control of Bojnord, Quchan, Nishapur, Mashhad, Serakhs, Torbat, Jam, and Bakharz.^[6] Yar Muhammad Khan Alakozai played a key role in starting the revolt that occurred after the Khorasan governor Shuja as-Sultana was recalled to Tehran in January 1827.^[6] In 1830 he led a 6,000-man army into Khorasan and terrorized the population.^[5] However, he eventually retreated back to Herat seeing that any minor incident could be used by Iran as a causus belli to reconquer the state. When in December 1831 'Abbas Mirza arrived, he quickly worked to crush the revolt. In the summer and fall of 1832 the Qara'i and Zafaranlu chieftains were forced to submit and then he moved against Herat. When the vizier returned, Kamran Shah again prepared for an attack on Qandahar and collected funds from Herati merchants.^[5]

In early 1833 'Abbas Mirza sent an ultimatum to Kamran Shah "that he should give up Herat and present himself at the Qājār court or perform sikka and khuṭba in the name of the Iranian king, submit taxes (manāl-i dīvān) and give hostages."^[6] Yar Mohammad Khan refused the ultimatum and 'Abbas Mirza responded by placing him under arrest.^[6][17][5] 'Abbas Mirza forced Yar Mohammad Khan to agree to his demands by taking out two of Yar Mohammad's teeth, at which point he was allowed to return to Herat after paying a ransom and a hostage exchange.^[5] However, Kamran Shah refused the ultimatum, gave 'Abbas Mirza a present of 15,000 tuman, and asked him to prepare for war if he wanted to demand any more.^[6][14]

As a response, 'Abbas Mirza sent his son, Mohammad Mirza, with 27,000^[14] or 30,000 troops^[17] to attack Herat in the summer of 1833. Qa'im Maqam was sent with 4,000 troops as a reinforcement. Kamran Shah only had around 5,000 men at his disposal.^[14] Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara organized a confederacy of Aimaq, Uzbek, and Turkmen tribes to defend Herat against the Shi'ites. He managed to convince Mizrab Khan of Maimana to overcome his suspicion of Yar Mohammad Khan and join the confederacy in fighting against the Iranians.^[10]

Mohammad Mirza took Kohsan and attempted to besiege the fort of Ghourian. This siege was unsuccessful however, and Qa'im Maqam left 2,000 troops at Ghoruian to continue the siege while he and Mohammad Mirza moved towards Herat.^[5][14] Although it was doubtful that the army could take Herat since it couldn't even take Ghourian,^[5] the answer to that was never resolved since 'Abbas Mirza ended up dying from tuberculosis on October 25. Mohammad Mirza, as the heir-apparent, was abliged to lift the siege.^[13][5][14] However, "Muhammad Mirza vowed that, once he had secured the throne of Persia, he would return and avenge himself on the city that had the timerity to resist his army."^[10] He demanded that Kamran Shah pay tribute and demolish the fort of Ghourian. Although Kamran Shah did accept these demands, he never followed through with them.^[5]

Intervention in Sistan and Persian Siege of Herat (1834–1838)

In January 1834 Shuja ul-Mulk marched against Qandahar with 22,000 men.^[5] The city was then besieged but Dost Mohammad Khan intervened on the side of the Qandahar Sardars and forced Shuja to flee to Herat with only 50 cavalry. Kamran was suspicious of his intentions and refused to let him enter the city, for he was a potential rival for the throne.

However, Mohammad Mirza hadn't forgotten his promise once he took the throne as Mohammad Shah Qajar in 1834. He began preparations to build an army to conquer Herat during the spring of 1836.^[5] However, a cholera epidemic in Khorasan forced Mohammad Shah to postpone his plans. He instead made a campaign towards the Turkmen tribes in the vicinity of Astarabad. This action caused Kamran Shah to summon the Aimaq tribal chieftains to Herat and secured promises from them that they would cooperate against the Iranian government.^[8]

While Iran was planning to conquer Herat once and for all, troops under Yar Muhammad Khan subdued the Sistan region,^[5] disputed between the Qandahar Sardars and Iran.^[13] As a result, relations with Iran worsened further.

Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Herat_(1793–1863)
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