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The Brahmanas (/ˈbrɑːmənəz/; Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणम्, IAST: Brāhmaṇam) are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within each Veda, which explain and instruct on the performance of Vedic rituals (in which the related Samhitas are recited). In addition to explaining the symbolism and meaning of the Samhitas, Brahmana literature also expounds scientific knowledge of the Vedic Period, including observational astronomy and, particularly in relation to altar construction, geometry. Divergent in nature, some Brahmanas also contain mystical and philosophical material that constitutes Aranyakas and Upanishads.[1]
Each Veda has one or more of its own Brahmanas, and each Brahmana is generally associated with a particular Shakha or Vedic school. Less than twenty Brahmanas are currently extant, as most have been lost or destroyed. Dating of the final codification of the Brahmanas and associated Vedic texts is controversial, as they were likely recorded after several centuries of oral transmission.[2] The oldest Brahmana is dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest are dated to around 700 BCE.[3][4]
Nomenclature and etymology
Brahmana (or Brāhmaṇam, Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणम्) can be loosely translated as 'explanations of sacred knowledge or doctrine' or 'Brahmanical explanation'.[5] According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, 'Brahmana' means:[6]
- 'Explanations of sacred knowledge or doctrine for the use of the Brāhmans in their sacrifices'.
- 'The Brāhmaṇa portion of the Veda (as distinct from its Mantra and Upanishad portion) and consisting of a class of works called Brāhmaṇas (they contain rules for the employment of the Mantras or hymns at various sacrifices, with detailed explanations of their origin and meaning and numerous old legends)'.
- According to 'Sāyaṇa to contain two parts: 1. vidhi, rules or directions for rites 2. artha-vāda, explanatory remarks'.
Etymology
M. Haug states that etymologically, 'the word is derived from brahman which properly signifies the Brahma priest who must know all Vedas, and understand the whole course and meaning of the sacrifice... the dictum of such a Brahma priest who passed as a great authority, was called a Brahmanam'.[7]
Synonyms
S. Shrava states that synonyms of the word 'Brahmana' include:[8]
- Vyakhyana: In Brahmana works such as the Shatapatha Brahmana (6.7.4.6),[9] 'the word vyakhyana also is a synonym of the commonly used word brahmana'. Definitions of 'Vyakhyana' (व्याख्यान) include 'explaining', 'exposition', 'elucidation', 'expounding', 'interpretation', and 'lecture'.[10]
- Pravachana': Another 'synonym of the brahmana word is pravachana'. Definitions of 'Pravachana' (प्रवचन) include 'expounding', 'teaching', 'exposition', and 'oral instruction'.[11]
- Vijnayate: Is 'used to denote a reference from a brahmana work. The word has first of all been used in the Gopatha Brahmana'. Definitions of 'Vijnayate' include 'It is a fact that...' and 'be distinguished or discerned'.[12]
Overview
R. Dalal states that the 'Brahmanas are texts attached to the Samhitas – Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas – and provide explanations of these and guidance for the priests in sacrificial rituals'.[13] S. Shri elaborates, stating 'Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Samhitas and are in both prose and verse form... The Brahmanas are divided into Vidhi and Arthavada. Vidhi are commands in the performance of Vedic sacrifices, and Arthavada praises the rituals, the glory of the Devas and so on. The belief in reincarnation and transmigration of soul started with Brahmanas... Brahmana period ends around 500 BC with the emergence of Buddhism and it overlaps the period of Aranyakas, Sutras, Smritis and the first Upanishads'.[14]
M. Haug states that the 'Veda, or scripture of the Brahmans, consists, according to the opinion of the most eminent divines of Hindustan, of two principal parts, viz. Mantra and Brahmanam... Each of the four Vedas (Rik, Yajus, Saman, and Atharvan) has a Mantra, as well as a Brahmana portion. The difference between both may be briefly stated as follows: That part which contains the sacred prayers, the invocations of the different deities, the sacred verses for chanting at the sacrifices, the sacrificial formulas called Mantra... The Brahmanam always presupposes the Mantra; for without the latter it would have no meaning... speculations on the meaning of the mantras, gives precepts for their application, relates stories of their origin... and explains the secret meaning of the latter'.[7]
J. Eggeling states that 'While the Brâhmanas are thus our oldest sources from which a comprehensive view of the sacrificial ceremonial can be obtained, they also throw a great deal of light on the earliest metaphysical and linguistic speculations of the Hindus. Another, even more interesting feature of these works, consists in the numerous legends scattered through them. From the archaic style in which these mythological tales are generally composed, as well as from the fact that not a few of them are found in Brâhmanas of different schools and Vedas, though often with considerable variations, it is pretty evident that the ground-work of many of them goes back to times preceding the composition of the Brâhmanas'.[15]
The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) states that while 'the Upanishads speculate on the nature of the universe, and the relationship of the one and the many, the immanent and transcendental, the Brahmanas make concrete the world-view and the concepts through a highly developed system of ritual-yajna. This functions as a strategy for a continuous reminder of the inter-relatedness of man and nature, the five elements and the sources of energy'.[16]
Performance of rituals
The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explanations on the symbolic importance of sacred words and ritual actions.[17] Academics such as P. Alper, K. Klostermaier and F.M, Muller state that these instructions insist on exact pronunciation (accent),[18] chhandas (छन्दः, meters), precise pitch, with coordinated movement of hand and fingers – that is, perfect delivery.[19][20] Klostermaier adds that the Satapatha Brahamana, for example, states that verbal perfection made a mantra infallible, while one mistake made it powerless.[19] Scholars suggest that this orthological perfection preserved Vedas in an age when writing technology was not in vogue, and the voluminous collection of Vedic knowledge were taught to and memorized by dedicated students through Svādhyāya, then remembered and verbally transmitted from one generation to the next.[19][21] It seems breaking silence too early in at least one ritual is permissible in the Satapatha (1.1.4.9), where 'in that case mutter some Rik or Yagus-text addressed to Vishnu; for Vishnu is the sacrifice, so that he thereby regains obtains a hold on the sacrifice, and penance is there by done by him'.[22]
The Nirukta
Recorded by the grammarian Yaska, the Nirukta, one of the six Vedangas or 'limbs of the Vedas' concerned with correct etymology and interpretation of the Vedas, references several Brahmanas to do so. These are (grouped by Veda):[23]
| Veda | Brahmana | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| Rigveda | Aitareya and Kausitaki | |
| Samaveda | Sadvimsa, Mantra, and Daivata | The Mantra Brahmana is from the first two chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana. |
| Yajurveda | Shatapatha | There are two versions or recensions by different Shakhas: Madhyandina and Kanva.
Both apply to the Śukla (White) Yajurveda. |
| Taittiriya | Applies to the Krishna (Black) Yajurveda | |
| Atharvaveda | Gopatha | The only surviving (i.e. extant) Brahmana of this Veda. |
Commentaries of Sayana
The 14th Century Sanskrit scholar Sayana composed numerous commentaries on Vedic literature, including the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. B.R. Modak states that 'king Bukka requested his preceptor and minister Madhavacharya to write a commentary on the Vedas, so that even common people would be able to understand the meaning of the Vedic Mantras. Madhavacharya told him that his younger brother Sayana was a learned person and hence he should be entrusted with the task'.[24] Modak also lists the Brahmanas commented upon by Sayana (with the exception of the Gopatha):[24]
| Veda | Brahmana | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| Rigveda | Aitareya | |
| Samaveda | Panchavimsha, Sadvimsa, Samavidhana, Arsheya, Daivata, Chandogya, Samhitopanishad, Vamsha | All 8 Brahmanas are of the Kauthuma Shakha. |
| Yajurveda | Taittirita, Shatapatha (Mâdhyandina recension) | |
| Atharvaveda | Gopatha | See the main article on the Gopatha Brahmana. |
| Note: It seems only a few commentaries of Sayana have been translated into English. | ||
Abbreviations and schools
For ease of reference, academics often use common abbreviations to refer to particular Brahmanas and other Vedic, post-Vedic (e.g. Puranas), and Sanskrit literature. Additionally, particular Brahmanas linked to particular Vedas are also linked to (i.e. recorded by) particular Shakhas or schools of those Vedas as well. Based on the abbreviations and Shakhas provided by works cited in this article (and other texts by Bloomfield, Keith, W. D, Whitney, and H.W. Tull),[25][26][27][28] extant Brahmanas have been listed below, grouped by Veda and Shakha. Note that:
- "--" indicates the abbreviation or school has not been provided or found
- There are variations of how the translated names of Vedas, Shakhas, and Brahmanas are spelt
- Lost or fragmentary Brahmanas (e.g. the Kathaka Brahmana, KathB) have not been listed (see the section of Lost Brahmanas, below)