Sri Mukhtiyar General Bhimsen Thapa
श्री मुख्तियार जर्नेल भीमसेन थापा
Sri Bhimsen Thapa, Mukhtiyar (Prime Minister of Nepal) from 1806 to 1837
Mukhtiyar of Nepal (Prime Minister of Nepal)
In office 1806–1837
Monarchs	Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah Rajendra Bikram Shah
Preceded by	Rana Bahadur Shah as Mukhtiyar
Succeeded by	Rana Jang Pande
Pradhan Senapati (Chief General) & Commander-In-Chief of the Nepalese Army
In office 1811- 14 June 1837
Preceded by	Damodar Pande as Pradhan Senapati
Succeeded by	Rajendra Bikram Shah
Personal details
Born	(1775-08-00)August 1775 Pipal Thok village, Gorkha region, Kingdom of Nepal (present-day Pipal Thok, Bhimsen Thapa R.M., Gorkha district, Gandaki Province, Nepal)
Died	29 July 1839(1839-07-29) (aged 63)[1] Bhim-Mukteshwar, bank of Bishnumati River, Kathmandu, Nepal
Relations	see Thapa dynasty, Pande dynasty, Kunwar family, Rana dynasty
Children	Lalita Devi Pande Janak Kumari Pande Dirgha Kumari Pande
Parents	Amar Singh Thapa (Sana) (father) Satyarupa Maya (mother)
Residence(s)	Thapathali Durbar (1798–1804), Bagh Durbar (1804–1837)[2]
Military service
Allegiance	Kingdom of Nepal
Branch/service	Nepal Army
Years of service	1798–1837
Rank	Commander-in-Chief
Commands	Commander-in-Chief
Battles/wars	Anglo-Nepalese War

This article is part of a series about Bhimsen Thapa
Early life and education Clan, Family and Related Families Clan: Bagale Thapa Family: Thapa dynasty Relatives: Basnyat dynasty (grand-uncles), Pande dynasty (son-in-laws), Rana dynasty (grand-nephews), Family of Amar Singh Thapa (distant cousins) Early Political Career Exile to Banaras (1800-1804) Battle of Khurbura Baisathi Haran (1805) 1806 Bhandarkhal massacre Premiership Nepal–Sikh War Anglo–Nepalese War Treaty of Sugauli 1833 Kathmandu–Bihar earthquake Reforms Policies and Reforms by Bhimsen Thapa Offices Held Kaji of Kingdom of Nepal (1804-1806) Mukhtiyar of Kingdom of Nepal (1806-1837) considered as Prime Minister of Nepal Commander-in-chief of the Nepalese Army (1811-1837) Monuments Built Dharahara Bagh Durbar Chhauni Silkhana Arsenal Bagmati Thapathali bridge Eponyms Bhimsen Thapa Rural Municipality Bhimsen Thapa Award Gallery: Picture, Sound, Video
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Bhimsen Thapa (Nepali: भीमसेन थापाlisten^ⓘ (August 1775 – 29 July 1839)) was a Nepalese statesman who served as the Mukhtiyar^{[note 1]} (equivalent to prime minister) and de facto ruler of Nepal^[4] from 1806 to 1837.^[5] He is widely known as the longest-serving prime minister of Nepal and was inducted into the "National heroes of Nepal" by King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah.

Born into an ordinary military family in the Gorkha Kingdom, Bhimsen first came close to the Crown Prince Rana Bahadur Shah at an early age in 1785. In 1798, he was recruited as a bodyguard for the King by his father. Thereafter, he rose to influence after helping the exiled ex-King Rana Bahadur Shah engineer his return to power in 1804. In gratitude, Rana Bahadur made Bhimsen a Kaji (equivalent to a minister) of the newly formed government. Rana Bahadur's assassination by his stepbrother Sher Bahadur Shah in 1806 led Bhimsen to initiate investigations into the context in which he ordered the death penalty for ninety-three people popularly known as the 1806 Bhandarkhal massacre, after which he claimed the title of Mukhtiyar (equivalent to prime minister) himself. The death of King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah in 1816 at the immature age of 17, with his heir, King Rajendra Bikram Shah being only 3 years old, along with the support from Queen Tripurasundari (the junior queen of Rana Bahadur Shah) allowed him to remain in power even after Nepal's defeat in the Anglo-Nepalese War. After the death of Queen Tripurasundari in 1832, the intrigues of the newly adult King Rajendra, the conspiracies and infightings with the British envoy Brian Houghton Hodgson, Senior Queen Samrajya Laxmi Devi and the rival courtiers (especially the Kala Pandes, who held Bhimsen Thapa responsible for the death of Damodar Pande in 1804) finally led to his imprisonment on false charges of the murder of an infant prince and ultimately his death by suicide in 1839.

Bhimsen is remembered for being the first Nepalese statesman to fully comprehend the British system of protectorate in India carried out by Lord Wellesley^[6][7][8] and his subsequent activities to keep British authorities at bay^[9] and prevent the Kingdom of Nepal from being a part of the British Empire through long and persistent anti-British politics during both wartime and peacetime. The territorial expanse of the Gurkha empire had reached its greatest extent from the Sutlej River in the west to the Teesta river in the east during his prime ministership. However, Nepal entered into a disastrous Anglo-Nepalese War with the partially British Empire-owned East India Company lasting from 1814 to 1816, which was concluded with the Treaty of Sugauli, by which Nepal lost almost one-third of its land. He is widely remembered for bringing about a large number of social, religious, economic, and administrative reforms, as well as the modernization of the Nepalese Army on the template of the French military forces. During his lifetime, he commissioned the construction of many temples and monuments including the highly famed Dharahara also known as Bhimsen Stambha ("Bhimsen Tower").

Widely considered one of the 19th century's most significant figures in Nepalese history, Bhimsen is seen as a patriotic, clever, and diplomatic statesman who played an important role in defending his country against then-widespread British colonial imperialism in South Asia. His foreign policy was largely motivated by rational national interest, national sustenance and nationalism.^[10] He is also well praised as a reformer and for his efficient systematization and management of the state administration, programmes and policies. However, he has been criticized for instigating an inhumane political massacre in his early political career, the elimination of his political rivals and the consolidation of political and military power within his family.

Early years

Bhimsen Thapa^{[note 2]} was born in August 1775 at Pipal Thok village of Gorkha district, to father Amar Singh Thapa (sanu)^{[note 3]} and mother Satyarupa Maya.^[12] Bhimsen belonged to a Chhetri family of Bharadars (courtiers).^[13] His ancestors were members of Bagale Thapa clan from Jumla who migrated eastwards.^[12][5] His grandfather was Bir Bhadra Thapa, a courtier in Prithvi Narayan Shah's army.^[12] Bhimsen Thapa had four brothers — Nain Singh, Bakhtawar Singh, Amrit Singh, and Ranbir Singh.^[14][15] From his step-mother, he had two brothers — Ranbam and Ranzawar.^[15] While it is not certain when Bhimsen got married, he had three wives with whom he begot one son, that died at an early age in 1796, and three daughters – Lalita Devi, Janak Kumari and Dirgha Kumari.^[15] Lack of a son caused him to adopt Sher Jung Thapa, son^[15] or grandson^[16] of his brother Nain Singh.^{[note 4]}

Not much detail is known about Bhimsen Thapa's early life. At the age of 11, Bhimsen came into contact with the Nepalese Royal Palace when his Bratabandha (sacred thread) ceremony was held together with the Crown Prince Rana Bahadur Shah in Gorkha in 1785.^[17][15] In 1798, his father took him to Kathmandu and enrolled him as a bodyguard to the king.^[15] In Kathmandu, Bhimsen took up residence at Thapathali, after which he lived in Bagh Durbar near Tundikhel after becoming a Kaji (equivalent to a minister).^[15]

Rise to power: 1798–1804

Royal household

The premature death of Pratap Singh Shah (reigned 1775–77), the eldest son of Prithvi Narayan Shah, left a huge power vacuum that remained unfilled, seriously debilitating the emerging Nepalese state. Pratap Singh Shah's successor was his son, Rana Bahadur Shah (reigned 1777–99), aged two and one-half years at his accession.^[17] The acting regent until 1785 was Queen Rajendra Lakshmi, followed by Bahadur Shah (reigned 1785–94), the second son of Prithvi Narayan Shah.^[18] Court life was consumed by rivalry centered on alignments with these two regents rather than on issues of national administration, and it set a bad precedent for future competition among contending regents. The exigencies of Sino-Nepalese War in 1788–92 had forced Bahadur Shah to temporarily take a pro-British stance, which had led to a commercial treaty with the British in 1792.^[19]

Meanwhile, Rana Bahadur Shah's youth had been spent in pampered luxury. In 1794 Rana Bahadur came of age, and his first act was to re-constitute the government, with his uncle, Bahadur Shah, removed from all official position.^[20][21] In mid-1795, he became infatuated with a Maithili Brahman widow, Kantavati Jha, and married her on the oath of making their illegitimate half-caste son (as per the Hindu law of that time) the heir apparent, by excluding the legitimate heir from his previous marriage.^{[note 5][21][23]} By 1797, his relationship with his uncle, who was living a retired life, and who wanted to seek refuge in China on the pretext of meeting the new emperor, had deteriorated to the extent that he ordered his imprisonment on 19 February 1797 and his subsequent murder on 23 June 1797. Such acts earned Rana Bahadur notoriety both among courtiers and common people, especially among Brahmins.^[21][24]

That same year in 1797, Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah was born and was hastily declared the crown prince.^[25] However, within a year of Girvan's birth, Kantavati contracted tuberculosis; and it was advised by physicians that she perform ascetic penances to cure herself. To make sure that Girvan succeeded to the throne while Kantavati was still alive, Rana Bahadur, aged just 23, abdicated in favor of their son on 23 March 1799, placing his first wife, Rajrajeshwori, as the regent.^[25] He joined his ailing wife, Kantavati, with his second wife, Subarnaprabha, in ascetic life and started living in Deopatan, donning saffron robes and titling himself Swami Nirgunanda or Nirvanananda.^{[note 6]} This move was also supported by all the courtiers who were discontented with his wanton and capricious behavior.^[21][25] It was around this time that both Bhimsen Thapa and his father Amar Singh Thapa (sanu) were promoted from Subedar to the rank of Sardar, and Bhimsen began to serve as the ex-King's chief bodyguard.^[27] Bhimsen received the position of personal secretary of King Rana Bahadur from the patronage of Mulkaji Kirtiman Singh Basnyat, since both his father and grandfather were in close military affiliations with Kaji Abhiman Singh Basnyat - the uncle of Kirtiman Singh.^[28] Meanwhile, Rana Bahadur's renunciation lasted only a few months. After the inevitable death of Kantavati, Rana Bahadur suffered a mental breakdown during which he lashed out by desecrating temples and cruelly punishing the attendant physicians and astrologers.^[29] He then renounced his ascetic life and attempted to re-assert his royal authority.^[30] This led to a direct conflict with almost all the courtiers who had pledged a holy oath of allegiance to the legitimate King Girvan; this conflict eventually led to the establishment of a dual government and to an imminent civil war, with Damodar Pande leading the military force against the dissenting ex-King and his group.^[31][30] Since most of the military officers had sided with the courtiers, Rana Bahadur realized that his authority could not be re-established; and he was forced to flee to the British-controlled city of Varanasi in May 1800.^[31][30]

Exile in Varanasi: 1800–1804

As Rana Bahadur Shah's bodyguard and advisor, Sardar Bhimsen Thapa also accompanied him to Varanasi. Rana Bahadur's retinue included his first wife, Raj Rajeshwari Devi, while his second wife, Subarna Prabha Devi, stayed back in Kathmandu to serve as the regent.^[32] Since Rana Bahadur was willing to do anything to regain his power and punish those who had forced him to exile, he served as a focal point of dissident factions in Varanasi. In November 1800, he first sought help from the British in exchange for which he was willing to concede a trading post in Kathmandu and grant them 37.5% of the tax revenue derived from the hills and 50% from the Terai.^[31][33] However, the British were in favor of working with the existing government in Nepal, rather than risk the uncertainties of restoring an exiled ex-King to power.^[34][35]

The Kathmandu Durbar was willing to appease the British and agreed to sign a commercial treaty so long as the wayward Rana Bahadur and his group were held in India under strict British surveillance.^[34][36] This arrangement was kept a secret from Rana Bahadur and his group; but when they eventually became aware of the strictures on their movement, and hence the treaty, they were incensed at the British as well as the proponents (Damodar Pande and his faction) of this treaty in Nepal.^[35] An intrigue was set in motion with the aim of splitting the unity of courtiers in Kathmandu Durbar and fomenting anti-British feelings. A flurry of letters were exchanged between the ex-King and individual courtiers in which he tried to set them up against Damodar Pande and tried to woo them by promises of high government positions, which they could hold for their entire life, and which could be inherited by their progeny.^[37][38] Baburam Acharya holds Bhimsen responsible for all these schemes, reasoning that Rana Bahadur did not have the mental capacity for such negotiations and intrigues. He contends that Bhimsen was responsible for negotiation with the British as well as responsible for writing letters in the name of the ex-King, while the ex-King was biding his time in debauchery.^{[37][note 7]} Similarly, historian Chittaranjan Nepali considered that in addition to the realization of the motive of Nepali Bharadars to detain Rana Bahadur's retinue in Banaras, Bhimsen also had fully realized the real meaning of the system of protectorates adopted by the East India Company Government.^[39]

Meanwhile, Rajrajeshwari, perhaps due to frustration over her debauched husband^{[note 8]}, or due to political reasons^{[note 9]}, left Varanasi, crossed the border of Nepal on 26 July 1801, and taking advantage of the weak regency, was slowly making her way towards Kathmandu with the view of taking over the regency.^[43][44] Back in Kathmandu, the court politics turned complicated when Mulkaji (or chief minister) Kirtiman Singh Basnyat, a favorite of the Regent Subarnaprabha, was secretly assassinated on 28 September 1801, by the supporters of Rajrajeswori.^[36] In the resulting confusion, many courtiers were jailed, while some executed, based solely on rumors. Bakhtawar Singh Basnyat, brother of assassinated Kirtiman Singh, was then given the post of Mulkaji^[45] During his tenure as the Mulkaji, on 28 October 1801, a Treaty of Commerce and Alliance^{[note 10]} was finally signed between Nepal and East India Company. This led to the establishment of the first British Resident, Captain William O. Knox, who was reluctantly welcomed by the courtiers in Kathmandu on 16 April 1802.^{[note 11][51]} The primary objective of Knox's mission was to bring the trade treaty of 1792 into full effect and to establish a "controlling influence" in Nepali politics.^[46] Almost eight months after the establishment of the Residency, Rajrajeshwari finally managed to assume the regency on 17 December 1802.^[34][44]

Return to Kathmandu

After Rajrajeshwori took over the regency, she was pressured by Knox to pay the annual pension of 82,000 rupees to the ex-King as per the obligations of the treaty,^[46] which paid off the vast debt that Rana Bahadur Shah had accumulated in Varanasi due to his spendthrift habits.^{[note 12][34][54][52]} The Nepalese court also felt it prudent to keep Rana Bahadur in isolation in Nepal itself, rather than in the British controlled India, and that paying off Rana Bahadur's debts could facilitate his return at an opportune moment.^[54] Rajrajeshwari's presence in Kathmandu also stirred unrest among the courtiers that aligned themselves around her and Subarnaprabha. Sensing an imminent hostility, Knox aligned himself with Subarnaprabha and attempted to interfere with the internal politics of Nepal.^[55] Getting a wind of this matter, Rajrajeshwari dissolved the government and elected new ministers, with Damodar Pande as the Mulkaji, while the Resident Knox, finding himself persona non grata and the objectives of his mission frustrated, voluntarily left Kathmandu to reside in Makwanpur citing a cholera epidemic.^[55][46] Subarnaprabha and the members of her faction were arrested.^[55]

Such open display of anti-British feelings and humiliation prompted the Governor General of the time Richard Wellesley to recall Knox to India and unilaterally suspend the diplomatic ties.^[56] The Treaty of 1801 was also unilaterally annulled by the British on 24 January 1804.^{[46][57][58][56]} The suspension of diplomatic ties also gave the Governor General a pretext to allow the ex-King Rana Bahadur to return to Nepal unconditionally.^[57][56]

As soon as they received the news, Rana Bahadur and his group proceeded towards Kathmandu. Some troops were sent by Kathmandu Durbar to check their progress, but the troops changed their allegiance when they came face to face with the ex-King.^[59] Damodar Pande and his men were arrested at Thankot where they were waiting to greet the ex-King with state honors and take him into isolation.^[59][58] After Rana Bahadur's reinstatement to power, he started to extract vengeance on those who had tried to keep him in exile.^[60] He exiled Rajrajeshwari to Helambu, where she became a Buddhist nun, on the charge of siding with Damodar Pande and colluding with the British.^[61][62] Damodar Pande, along with his two eldest sons, who were completely innocent, was executed on 13 March 1804; similarly some members of his faction were tortured and executed without any due trial, while many others managed to escape to India.^{[note 13][63][62]} Rana Bahadur also punished those who did not help him while in exile. Among them was Prithvi Pal Sen, the king of Palpa, who was tricked into imprisonment, while his kingdom forcefully annexed.^[64][65] Subarnaprabha and her supporters were released and given a general pardon. Those who had helped Rana Bahadur to return to Kathmandu were lavished with rank, land, and wealth. Bhimsen Thapa was made a second kaji; Ranajit Pande, who was the father-in-law of Bhimsen's brother, was made the Mulkaji; Sher Bahadur Shah, Rana Bahadur's half-brother, was made the Mul Chautariya; while Ranga Nath Paudel was made the Raj Guru (royal spiritual preceptor).^[64][66]

As Kaji: 1804–1806

Expansion in the West

By the time Bhimsen came to power, the territory of Nepal extended up to the border of Garhwal in the west. During the reign of Bahadur Shah, Nepal had concluded a treaty with Garhwal demanding that it pay NRs. 9,000 per year. Later Rana Bahadur Shah reduced it to NRs. 3,000. However, in 1804, Garhwal refused to pay the amount upon which Bhimsen sent an army under the command of Bada Kaji Amar Singh Thapa (not to be confused with his father), Bhakti Thapa and Hasti Dal Shah to attack Garhwal^[67] and in the Battle of Khurbura in May 1804, the huge 12000 Garhwali troops fled the war after their King Pradyumna Shah was shot dead by Kaji Ranajit Kunwar,^[68] thus extending the territory of Nepal up to the Sutlej river in the west.^[69] As the Nepalese army were preparing for the Kangra campaign in September 1805, military desertion increased; as a result, Bhimsen ordered his brother Nain Singh to arrest such military deserters.^[70]

Baisathi Haran

After the power shuffle, in 1805, Bhimsen became the architect of an unpopular plan of seizing all the tax free land granted to temple guthis and as birta to Brahmin priests in order to fill the empty state coffers.^{[71][72][note 14]} The objective was to scrutinize the cases in which tax-exempt lands had been used without valid documentary proof of land grant by a benefactor; owners with valid evidence or owners who could take an oath of validity were not affected.^[74] The money was spent in financing the military campaigns in the far west in Jamuna-Sutlej region. This was a very radical reform in the staunchly religious society of the time and became known as Baisathi Haran in the Nepalese history.^[71][72]

Bhandarkhal massacre of 1806

After returning to Kathmandu, in complicity with Rana Bahadur, Bhimsen indulged in appropriating the palaces and properties of deposed members of Shah family,^{[note 15]} which he shared between himself and his supporter Rangnath Paudel.^[75] This aroused resentment and jealousy among Sher Bahadur Shah (Rana Bahadur's step-brother) and his faction since they did not receive any portion of this confiscated property, despite their help in reinstating Rana Bahadur to power.^{[note 16][78]} They were also wary of Bhimsen's growing power.^[76] By this time, Rana Bahadur was a nominal figure and Kaji Bhimsen Thapa was single-handedly controlling the central administration of the country, being able to implement even unpopular reforms like Baisathi Haran.^[79]

Bhimsen felt the need to finish off his rivals, but at the same time, felt a need to take precaution before going after immediate members of the royal household. For almost two years after returning to Kathmandu, Rana Bahadur had no official position in the government – he was neither a king, nor a regent, nor a minister – yet he felt no qualms in using the full state power.^[79] Not only did Rana Bahadur carry out the Baisathi Haran under Bhimsen's advice, he was also able to banish all non-vaccinated children, as well as their parents, from the town during a smallpox outbreak, in order to prevent King Girvan from catching that disease.^[80] Now, after almost two-year, all of a sudden Rana Bahadur was made Mukhtiyar (chief authority) on 26 February 1806 and Bhimsen tried to implement his schemes through Rana Bahadur.^[81][82] Bhimsen had also secretly learned of a plot to oust Rana Bahadur.^[83] Tribhuvan Khawas (Pradhan), a member of Sher Bahadur's faction, was imprisoned on the re-opened charges of conspiracy with the British that led to the Knox's mission, but for which pardon had already been doled out, and was ordered to be executed.^[80][84] Tribhuvan Khawas decided to reveal everyone that was involved in the dialogue with the British.^[80][84] Among those implicated was Sher Bahadur Shah.^[80][84]

On the night of 25 April 1806, Rana Bahadur held a meeting at Tribhuvan Khawas's house with rest of the courtiers, during which he taunted and threatened to execute Sher Bahadur.^[85][86] At around 10 pm, Sher Bahadur in desperation drew a sword and killed Rana Bahadur Shah before being cut down by nearby courtiers, Bam Shah and Bal Narsingh Kunwar, also allies of Bhimsen.^[87][88] The assassination of Rana Bahadur Shah triggered a great massacre in Bhandarkhal (a royal garden east of Kathmandu Durbar) and at the bank of Bishnumati river.^[89][90] That very night members of Sher Bahadur's faction – Bidur Shah, Tribhuvan Khawas, and Narsingh Gurung – and even King Prithvipal Sen of Palpa, who was under house arrest in Patan Durbar, were swiftly rounded up and killed in Bhandarkhal.^[91][92] Their dead bodies were not allowed funeral rites and were dragged and thrown by the banks of Bishnumati to be eaten by vultures and jackals.^[91][92] The next few days, all the sons of Sher Bahadur Shah, Bidur Shah, Tribhuvan Khawas and Narsingh Gurung, aged 2 to 15 were beheaded by the bank of Bishnumati; their wives and daughters were given to the untouchables, their bodyguards and servants were also put to death, and all their property seized.^[91][90] Bhimsen managed to kill everyone who did not agree with him or anyone who could potentially become a problem for him in the future. In this massacre that lasted for about two weeks, a total of ninety-three people (16 women and 77 men) lost their lives.^[91][93]

Almost one and half months before the massacre, upon Bhimsen's insistence, Rana Bahadur, then 31 years old, had married a 14-year-old girl named Tripurasundari on 7 March 1806, making her his fifth legitimate wife.^{[note 17][95]} Taking advantage of the political chaos, Bhimsen became the Mukhtiyar (1806–37), and Tripurasundari was given the title Lalita Tripurasundari and declared regent and Queen Mother (1806–32) of Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah, who was himself 9 years old.^[96] Thus, Bhimsen became the first person outside the royal household to hold the position of the Mukhtiyar. All the other wives (except Subarnaprabha^[97]) and concubines of Rana Bahadur, along with their handmaidens, were forced to commit sati.^[93][98] Bhimsen obtained a royal mandate from Tripurasundari, given in the name of King Girvan, commanding all other courtiers to be obedient to him.^[96] Bhimsen further consolidated his power by disenfranchising the old courtiers from the central power by placing them as administrators of far-flung provinces of the country. The courtiers were instead replaced by his close relatives, who were mere yes-men.^[99] On the spot where Rana Bahadur Shah drew his last breath, Bhimsen later built a commemorative Shiva temple by the name Rana-Mukteshwar.^[100]

As Mukhtiyar (Premiership): 1806–1832

Expansion in the West (Continued)

Bhimsen previously ordered the conquest of the Garhwal Kingdom and the preparations of the Kangra campaign. Gorkhali forces under Badakaji Amar Singh, Rudrabir Shah and Nain Singh overran Nalagarh, crossed the Sutlej river and defeated King Sansar Chand of Kangra at Mahal Mori in May 1806.^[101] Unfortunately, Bhimsen lost his brother Nain Singh who was shot dead at the conquest of the Kangra fort^[102] in the winter of 1806–07.^[103] Afterwards in 1807, it was put under Nepalese siege and by early 1809, most of the land of Kangra jagir had been incorporated into Nepal, although the fort was still held out. Sansar Chand took refuge among the Sikhs of Punjab and by August 1809, the Nepalese army was forced to retreat back by the combined army of Sansar Chand and Ranjit Singh, the ruler of Punjab.^[104][105] Other states like Salyan were also annexed to Nepal during his rule. Before the Anglo-Nepalese War, the territory of Nepal extended from Sutlej river in the west to Teesta river in the east. Most of this territory, however, was lost in the Anglo-Nepalese War.^[105] In 1811, Bhimsen was given the title of General, thus enjoying a dual position of Mukhtiyar and General.^[106]

Anglo-Nepalese War: 1814–1816

The Anglo–Nepalese War (1814–1816), sometimes called the Gorkha War, was fought between Nepal and the British Empire owned East India Company as a result of border tensions, trade dispute, and ambitious expansionism of both the belligerent parties. The hostility between the two parties had been brewing for more than a decade since the failure of Knox's mission.^[107] Bhimsen had installed his own father Amar Singh Thapa as the governor of Palpa, leading to a serious border disputes with the British East India Company. The border dispute with the British on the frontier of Butwal, Terai, was the immediate reason which led to the Anglo-Nepalese War in 1814.^{[108][109][110][107]} The British had been striving to annex the hill regions of Nepal and were responsible for creating border disputes. At the border demarcation, the British representative Major Bradshaw disrespected the Nepalese representatives – Rajguru Ranganath Poudyal and Kaji Dalabhanjan Pande, with a view of invoking a war against the Nepalese.^[111] This war was the most important event during the Mukhtiyari (Mukhtiyarship) of Bhimsen Thapa since it affected every aspect of the later course of Nepalese history. Considering the many successes that the Nepalese army had seen during the expansion campaign of Nepal, Bhimsen Thapa on the Nepalese side was one of the main proponents of the war with the British, which was against the better advice of the likes of Bada Kaji Amar Singh Thapa, who actually did the fighting and knew about the hardships of war.^[112][113] Among those high ranked ministers and commanders who supported the war was Kaji Dalabhanjan, while among those who opposed the war was Kaji Amar Singh (Bada), Rajguru Ranga Nath, Kaji Ranadhoj Thapa, Chautaria Bam Shah and Chautaria Hastidal Shah.^[114] Bhimsen's attitude before the war is summarized in the following reply to King Girvan which depicts his strong belief on the Nepalese strategic military advantage:

Through the influence of your good fortune, and that of your ancestors, no one has yet been able to cope with the state of Nipal. The Chinese once made war upon us, but were reduced to seek peace. How then will the English be able to penetrate into the hills? Under your auspices, we shall by our own exertions be able to oppose to them a force of fifty-two lakhs of men, with which we will expel them. The small fort of Bhurtpoor was the work of man, yet the English being worsted before it, desisted from the attempt to conquer it; our hills and fastnesses are formed by the hand of God, and are impregnable. I therefore recommend the prosecution of hostilities. We can make peace afterwards on such terms as may suit our convenience.^[115]

Kaji Ranadhoj Thapa also agreed with Bhimsen's reply regarding the Nepalese strategic military advantage over British in the hills but counterargued that the expelled hill Rajas will unite against the Gorkha Empire and disclose the confidentiality of the hills to the British.^[116] Similarly, Kaji Amar Singh (Bada) also opined that hill Rajas will defect to the British side.^[116] Based on intelligence reports, Bhimsen predicted that the first point of British attack would be the Doon area, which later proved to be correct.^[117] The British launched two successive waves of invasion campaigns. The Nepalese army was commanded largely by the members and relatives of the larger Thapa caucus that includes the Thapa dynasty and Family of Amar Singh Thapa.^{[note 18]} During the war, Bhimsen tried to form a coalition with Ranjit Singh of Sikh Empire and Daulat Rao Scindia of Gwalior State and launch a collective war against the British; thus opening multiple geographical frontiers of combat.^[124] Both rulers did not wish to see the Nepalese lose; however, they also did not want to commit themselves to the losing side.^{[125][note 19]} The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, which ceded around one-third of Nepal's territory to the British. Furthermore, according to the treaty, Nepal had to agree that accredited Ministers from each shall reside at the Court of the other to secure and improve the relations of amity and peace between the two States.^[129] During the war, Bhimsen Thapa served as the Commander-in-Chief of the Nepalese army; and thus he had to bear the direct responsibility of Nepalese defeat.^[130][131]

Hold on power

In May 1816, Edward Gardner arrived in Kathmandu as the first British Resident after the conclusion of the Treaty of Sugauli. Bhimsen used all his influence to cultivate peace, although not friendliness, with the British, "a Power," as he said, "that crushed thrones like potsherds."^[132] His foreign policy after the war was essentially the one handed down by Prithvi Narayan Shah – to keep Nepal isolated from any foreign influences. As such, although he was forced to accept a British resident in Kathmandu as per the Treaty of Sugauli, he made sure to cut off the resident from all contacts with life in Nepal to the point of making the Resident a virtual prisoner. Apart from petty harassment, the Resident was only allowed to travel within the Kathmandu valley, that too only with special escorts. The resident was also barred from meeting the king or any courtiers at will. Thus the threat of having a Resident in Kathmandu was not as keen as had been anticipated.^[133] Later British Resident Hodgson also remarked how the British couldn't capitalize the 1816 war victory over Nepal where he opined that the British should have either "crippled them effectually" or force Nepal in "giving surplus soldiery employment" to the British armies.^[134]

On 20 November 1816, King Girvan Yuddha died of smallpox, aged nineteen.^[135] Girvan had two wives – the first wife committed sati with Girvan, while the second wife also died of smallpox after 14 days of Girvan's death. Thus, Girvan was succeeded by his only son, Rajendra Bikram Shah, an infant of two years old, after 18 days of his father's death on 8 December 1816. Therefore, Bhimsen Thapa, in collusion with the queen regent, Tripurasundari, remained in power despite the defeat of Nepal in the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16.^[136] There was a sustained opposition against Bhimsen from factions centered around leading members of other aristocratic families, notably the Pandes,^{[note 20]} who denounced what they felt was his cowardly submission to the British. Paradoxically, the peacetime after the Anglo-Nepalese War saw the inflation and modernization of the Nepal army, which Bhimsen used to keep his opposition under control,^[139] while at the same time convincing the suspicious British that he had no intention of using it against them. Bhimsen appointed his own family members and his most trusted men to the highest positions at the court and in the army, while members of older aristocratic families were made administrators of far-flung provinces of the kingdom, away from the capital.^[140]

Thus, Bhimsen was able to continue making all the administrative decisions of the country, while the Regent Queen Tripurasundari would unquestioningly approve these decisions by stamping the royal seal issued in the name of King Rajendra on these government orders. The Regent never dared to express any doubts regarding Bhimsen's decisions.^[141] Nevertheless, to make sure that the King, his wives – Samrajya Laxmi Devi (senior) and Rajya Lakshmi Devi (junior) – and the Regent were insulated from influences of people other than Bhimsen and his closest relatives, Bhimsen had instated his youngest brother, Ranvir Singh Thapa, in the royal palace to keep a watch on the royal family and to keep guard against any outside person.^[142] Any priest or courtier who wished to be granted an interview with the King, the Queens, or the Regent, had to get approval from Ranbir Singh and the interview had to be conducted under his watchful presence.^[142] Similarly, the royal family was not allowed to leave the palace without Bhimsen's permission either. Bhimsen had also neglected the formal education of Rajendra, due to which he had grown to be uncritical and weak minded to the extent that he was even unaware that he was virtually a prisoner.^[142] However, his wives were more alert and wary of Bhimsen since, according to Baburam Acharya, they received unfiltered news of the world outside the royal palace from their handmaidens, who would leave the palace compounds and go to their homes during their menstruation and gather news and rumors of the day, which they would then relate to the Queens.^[143]

Tussles with Samar Jung Company

After the Bhandarkhal Massacre of 1806, Bhimsen was put in charge of the Samar Jung Company, which was established in 1796 as the royal palace guard unit and camped inside the palace compound itself, whose command was later handed over to his brother Bakhtawar Singh^[144] This position allowed Bakhtawar to gain the confidence of both King Girvan and the Regent Queen Tripurasundari.^[144] After the end of the Anglo-Nepalese War, Bakhtawar was suspected by Bhimsen of playing anti-Mukhtiyar politics and of joining the opposing court factions.^[125] At the time, Bakhtawar was living in joint family with his brother, without the division of their ancestral property.^[125] After the conclusion of a treaty with the British to hand over some of the annexed land in Tarai back to Nepal, Bhimsen turned his attention to address Bakhtawar Singh's influence over the royalty. However, their mother pleaded only a light punishment for Bakhtawar.^[125] Thus, he was dismissed from his position and imprisoned in Nuwakot.^[125] This move was highly unpopular among the personnel of the Samar Jung Company. As such, Bhimsen had the Samar Jung Company removed from its position of royal palace guard.^[125] Some of the officers and soldiers of the Samar Jung Company were imprisoned, while the remaining personnel were assigned guard duties in common jails as well as monitoring of road construction by convicts. As a further punishment, the Mukhtiyar cancelled their holidays on Saturday, whereas all other companies enjoyed such benefit.^[125] Their Devata flag carried by Nishan flag-bearers were also treated with indignity.^[125]

Policies and reforms

British Historian Henry Ambrose Oldfield contended that Bhimsen strengthened Nepal back to the pre-British war position through the adoption of militarization, financial and economic policies.^[145]

Bhimsen who was possessed of great perseverance as well as determination, devoted almost exclusively all his time and talents to the services of the State. During the minority of King, he raised Nipal , although deprived of nearly one-third of her dominions, to nearly as strong a military position on our frontier as she had occupied before the war. He nearly doubled her internal resources by careful attention to the state of her finances, and by judicious re-adjustment of the national taxes.

— Historian Oldfield summarizing Bhimsen's post war recovery policies and strategies^[145]

Defence policy

Militarization

Bhimsen implemented the reorganization of Nepalese Army on the basis of European military system and the maintenance of the newly reorganized strong army was done from the confiscation of Birta funds of 1805.^[146] He appointed French military officials to modernize the military on the basis of French military ranks and uniforms. Military jobs were made attractive by increasing facilities including Jhara (porter) facility even in the peacetime under his Mukhtiyari.^[146] Due to extensive lack of labour forces in the country, he issued legal obligations to all adult males of all castes to provide compulsory labour to the state subject to royal exemptions. Those state jobs included construction and maintenance of forts, bridges, roads, and production of ammunition for military expeditions.^[147]

Bhim Sen took advantage of the continuance of peace, not only to improve the finances of the country, but to render the army more efficient both in numbers and in discipline. The martial feelings of soldiery were every way encouraged; their rights and privileges were jealously preserved; but they were at the same time kept from that idleness which is so favourable to mutiny and intrigue, by strict attention to drill and discipline and by being employed in the construction of magazines, arsenals, cannon, foundry, &c., and by the establishment of two large cantonments-one for the artillery and one for the line-at Kathmandu.

— Historian Henry Ambrose Oldfield on Bhimsen's reorganization of military^[148]

Passport policy

Bhimsen considered Churia hills as the basic line of defense of the Kingdom of Nepal. He thus wanted to build communications to the western parts such as Kumaon, Garhwal and Yamuna-Sutlej region of Kingdom of Nepal and block the strategic routes to the Kathmandu valley.^[149] The possessions of passers-by were strictly searched and even private letters were censored. Such was implemented to prevent outflow of secret information of Nepal to British Company government.^[150] Passport system was introduced to check the access to the capital city with officials appointed on the Churai routes with instructions as follows:

In case you permit any person, irrespective of his status, leaving this side to proceed onward even though he does not have (a document bearing) signature of passports authority. We shall behead you.^[151]

Trade and economic policies

The trade policy of Bhimsen Thapa was influenced from King Prithvi Narayan Shah who believed foreign (in the context English) traders would weaken the economy of the country and impoverish the general people. Customs offices were relocated within the country to reduce discomfort to native traders. Essential arrangements and facilities were provided to native traders and officials were warned not to intimidate native traders.^[152] Bhimsen is quoted to have said:

If Tibetans and Firangis i.e. foreigners or, in the contemporary context, Englishmen meet and trade with each other, our ryots and traders will lose their employment and result will not be good.^[153]

He brought forth the increment of custom duties leading to higher state revenue generation from eighty thousand rupees in 1816 to two and half lakh rupees (NPR 250,000) in 1833.^[154] After 1807, markets were opened in the Terai and Inner Terai under direct governmental efforts and supervision to facilitate native traders. For instances; in 1809, market towns were made at Hitaruwa in Makawanpur and at Bhadaruwa in Saptari.^[153] Indian traders were also encouraged to trade within the country^[152] and Nepalese officials were instructed to take care of the development of border markets, land reclamation and settlement, and protection of land encroachment.^[153] In 1811, timber exports from Chitwan to Calcutta were introduced together with the diversification of agricultural products to strengthen the export. Also, mining and minting coins were undertaken by the Bhimsen government.^[153]

Judicial reformsedit

Bhimsen put forth the principle of Equality before the law in Nepal. In 1826, a regulation was issued by him through Lalmohar (Red Seal) of Maharaja directing Kaji Dalbhanjan Pande to maintain the sanctity of judiciary and it further stated:

irrespective of castes, creeds or position in the society, all are same in the eyes of law.^[150]

Mohi (tenant farmers) felt it easier to pay taxes in kind to their Zamindars due to cash shortage. He directed the Zamindars to accept foodgrain as tax and not to harass the farmers. The regulation further directed that it was the responsibility of Zamindars to make arrangements for cash and not of the farmers.^[155] The anti-bribery regulations were issued due to reports of Zamindars, Amalis, and regional officials taking up bribery from people in the far-flung provinces. Bhimsen through his regulations declared it illegal to give or take any form of bribes or gifts from people.^[155] Merchants at Ridi in 1829 and Tansen in 1830 lost their thatched shopping houses to fire. The affected merchants demanded individual rights on property and allowance of building concrete shopping houses. He accepted the merchants' proposal of building concrete shopping houses and allowed individual rights on the property.^[155] Due to long ongoing unification campaigns of Nepal, there was anarchy in Nepalese administration before Bhimsen's Mukhtiyari. In Achham Province, Zamindars, Amalis, and traders perpetrated great injustice to farmers by increasing heavy interest on loans, to which farmers revolted. Bhimsen being moved by the plight of the victims issued Lalmohar with binding instructions to write off outstanding dues at once.^[156]

Slavery reformsedit

In 1807 dealing with slavery, the government of Bhimsen directed revenue officials to collect outstanding taxes and fines in terms of cash and ordered the freedom of all enslaved farmers in case of defaulting taxes and no farmer would be enslaved for non-payment of taxes. In 1812, he imposed a general restriction on human trafficking in Garhwal Sirmur and other areas.^[157] The children of debtors were acquired by the traders against the accumulated interest of the loans and were sold on profit. The feudal lords did not allow them legal facilities and considered slaves as non-human. Bhimsen challenged the widespread notion of inhuman treatment of slaves.^[158] In 1830, Bhimsen having introduced anti-slavery regulations beforehand in 1807,^[157] restricted all of the Danuwar traders in Western Nepal to acquire and sell Kariya slaves and also freed slaves from the custody of their owner.^[159] The regulation was targeted to provide legal rights to slaves and boost their morale. Six years afterward, he restricted ban on sales of children prevalent among Magar community of Marsyangdi and Western Pyuthan.^[158] The slave trading was made illegal on various parts of Nepal by Bhimsen. It was considered one of the greatest achievement in the history on comparison to their British counterparts. Wilberforce in England was obtaining the public mandate against it while one of the most powerful Prime Minister in the world (in the 1800s) – William Pitt was hesitant to outlaw the slave trading.^[158]

Socio-religious reformsedit

The socio-religious customs like birth and death ceremonies among Newar community was leading to indebtedness. The priests took up huge ceremonial fees and failure to adhere to such customs led people to excommunication in the Newar society. In 1830–31, Bhimsen by issuing Lalmohar, a regulation was introduced with a limit of ceremonial fees and the amount of expenditure was restricted.^[160]

Land management reformsedit

Around 1808, Bhimsen ordered the reclamation of wastelands in Terai region for increasing state revenue and offered irrigation facilities to settlers reclaiming the wastelands.^[161] In places where there was a lack of tenants, farmers were allocated the wastelands with tax exemption and loan was provided for new incoming settlers. The wastelands reclamation policy was largely advantageous to the government and tenants, and was greatly successful in Eastern Terai.^[161] For the coordination of this policy, officials were appointed all over the state in 1811.^[152]

Postal reformsedit

Hulaki (postal) system from Kathmandu to the western front was implemented in 1804 through rotational relays of porters. In 1808 during the premiership of Bhimsen, it was reported that minors were engaged in Hulaki services in the villages with small Hulaki households. The regulation issued by Bhimsen's government was to increase the number of relays in the villages consisting low Hulaki households and person forcing minors and females for personal Hulaki services would be severely punished.^[162] These Jhara (porter) services for Hulaki system were regularly required due to which some were compensated with land under Adhiya (half-ownership) tenure and others in the form of cash wages compensation.^[163] Regulations issued in July 1809 was: Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Bhimsen_Thapa
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