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The Amarna letters (/əˈmɑːrnə/; sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna") are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in Canaan and Amurru, or neighboring kingdom leaders, during the New Kingdom, spanning a period of no more than thirty years between c. 1360–1332 BC (see here for dates).[1] The letters were found in Upper Egypt at el-Amarna, the modern name for the ancient Egyptian capital of Akhetaten, founded by pharaoh Akhenaten (1350s–1330s BC) during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
The Amarna letters are unusual in Egyptological research, because they are written not in the language of ancient Egypt, but in cuneiform, the writing system of ancient Mesopotamia. Most are in a variety of Akkadian sometimes characterised as a mixed language, Canaanite-Akkadian;[2] one especially long letter—abbreviated EA 24—was written in a late dialect of Hurrian, and is the longest contiguous text known to survive in that language.
The known tablets total 382, of which 358 have been published by the Norwegian Assyriologist Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon in his work, Die El-Amarna-Tafeln, which came out in two volumes (1907 and 1915) and remains the standard edition to this day.[2][3] The texts of the remaining 24 complete or fragmentary tablets excavated since Knudtzon have also been made available.[2]
The Amarna letters are of great significance for biblical studies as well as Semitic linguistics because they shed light on the culture and language of the Canaanite peoples in this time period. Though most are written in Akkadian, the Akkadian of the letters is heavily colored by the mother tongue of their writers, who probably spoke an early form of Proto-Canaanite, the language(s) which would later evolve into the daughter languages of Hebrew and Phoenician. These "Canaanisms" provide valuable insights into the proto-stage of those languages several centuries prior to their first actual manifestation.[4][5]
The letters
These letters, comprising cuneiform tablets written primarily in Akkadian – the regional language of diplomacy for this period – were first discovered around 1887 by local Egyptians who secretly dug most of them from the ruined city of Amarna, and sold them in the antiquities market. They had originally been stored in an ancient building that archaeologists have since called the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh. Once the location where they were found was determined, the ruins were explored for more. The first archaeologist who successfully recovered more tablets was Flinders Petrie, who in 1891 and 1892 uncovered 21 fragments. Émile Chassinat, then director of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo, acquired two more tablets in 1903. Since Knudtzon's edition, some 24 more tablets, or fragments, have been found, either in Egypt, or identified in the collections of various museums.[6]
The initial group of letters recovered by local Egyptians have been scattered among museums in Germany, England, Egypt, France, Russia, and the United States. Either 202 or 203 tablets are at the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin; 99 are at the British Museum in London;[7] 49 or 50 are at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo; 7 at the Louvre in Paris; 3 at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow; and 1 in the collection of the Oriental Institute in Chicago.[8] A few tablets are at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and the Royal Museum of Art and History in Brussels.[9]
The archive contains a wealth of information about cultures, kingdoms, events and individuals in a period from which few written sources survive. It includes correspondence from Akhenaten's reign (Akhenaten who was also titled Amenhotep IV), as well as his predecessor Amenhotep III's reign. The tablets consist of over 300 diplomatic letters; the remainder comprise miscellaneous literary and educational materials. These tablets shed much light on Egyptian relations with Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, and Alashiya (Cyprus) as well as relations with the Mitanni, and the Hittites. The letters have been important in establishing both the history and the chronology of the period. Letters from the Babylonian king, Kadashman-Enlil I, anchor the timeframe of Akhenaten's reign to the mid-14th century BC. They also contain the first mention of a Near Eastern group known as the Habiru, whose possible connection with the Hebrews—due to the similarity of the words and their geographic location—remains debated. Other rulers involved in the letters include Tushratta of Mitanni, Lib'ayu of Shechem, Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, and the quarrelsome king, Rib-Hadda, of Byblos, who, in over 58 letters, continuously pleads for Egyptian military help. Specifically, the letters include requests for military help in the north against Hittite invaders, and in the south to fight against the Habiru.[10]
Letter summary
Amarna Letters are politically arranged in a rough counterclockwise fashion:
- 001–014 Babylonia
- 015–016 Assyria
- 017–030 Mitanni
- 031–032 Arzawa
- 033–040 Alashiya
- 041–044 Hatti
- 045–380+ Syria/Lebanon/Canaan
Amarna Letters from Syria/Lebanon/Canaan are distributed roughly:
- 045–067 Syria
- 068–227 Lebanon (where 68–140 are from Gubla aka Byblos)
- 227–380 Canaan (written mostly in the Canaano-Akkadian language).
Akhenaten and Tushratta
Early in his reign, Akhenaten, the pharaoh of Egypt, had conflicts with Tushratta, the king of Mitanni, who had courted favor with his father, Amenhotep III, against the Hittites. Tushratta complains in numerous letters that Akhenaten had sent him gold-plated statues rather than statues made of solid gold; the statues formed part of the bride-price that Tushratta received for letting his daughter Tadukhepa marry Amenhotep III and then later marry Akhenaten.[11]
An Amarna letter preserves a complaint by Tushratta to Akhenaten about the situation:
I...asked your father Mimmureya for statues of solid cast gold, ... and your father said, 'Don't talk of giving statues just of solid cast gold. I will give you ones made also of lapis lazuli. I will give you too, along with the statues, much additional gold and goods beyond measure.' Every one of my messengers that were staying in Egypt saw the gold for the statues with their own eyes. ... But my brother has not sent the solid statues that your father was going to send. You have sent plated ones of wood. Nor have you sent me the goods that your father was going to send me, but you have reduced greatly. Yet there is nothing I know of in which I have failed my brother. ... May my brother send me much gold. ... In my brother's country gold is as plentiful as dust. May my brother cause me no distress. May he send me much gold in order that my brother any s may honor me.[11]
Amarna letters list
Note: Many assignments are tentative; spellings vary widely. This is just a guide.[3]
| EA# | Letter author to recipient |
|---|---|
| EA# 1 | Amenhotep III to Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil |
| EA# 2 | Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 3 | Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 4 | Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 5 | Amenhotep III to Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil |
| EA# 6 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 7 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 8 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 9 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 10 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 11 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 12 | A Babylonian Princess to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 13 | Burraburiash's Gifts to an Egyptian Princess |
| EA# 14 | Amenhotep IV to Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II |
| EA# 15 | Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit I to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 16 | Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit I to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 17 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 18 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 19 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 20 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 21 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 22 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 23 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 24 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 25 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 26 | Mitanni king Tushratta to widow Tiy |
| EA# 27 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 28 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 29 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 30 | Mitanni king to the kings of Canaan |
| EA# 31 | Amenhotep III to Arzawa king Tarhundaraba |
| EA# 32 | Arzawa king Tarhundaraba to King of Egypt Amenhotep III |
| EA# 33 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #1 |
| EA# 34 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 35 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #3 |
| EA# 36 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #4 |
| EA# 37 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #5 |
| EA# 38 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #6 |
| EA# 39 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #7 |
| EA# 40 | Alashiya minister to Egypt minister |
| EA# 41 | Hittite king Suppiluliuma I to Huri |
| EA# 42 | Hittite king to King of Egypt |
| EA# 43 | Suppiluliuma, Hittite King, to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 44 | Hittite prince Ziar to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 45 | 'Ammittamru I, Ugarit king, to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 46 | Ugarit king to Egyptian king |
| EA# 47 | Ugarit king to Egyptian king |
| EA# 48 | Heba, Queen of Ugarit, to the Queen of Egypt |
| EA# 49 | Ugarit king Niqm-Adda II to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 50 | Maidservant to the Queen of Egypt |
| EA# 51 | Nuhasse king Addunirari to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 52 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #1 |
| EA# 53 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #2 |
| EA# 54 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #3 |
| EA# 55 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #4 |
| EA# 56 | Akizzi(?), the Ruler of Qatna, to Amenhotep IV, the King of Egypt |
| EA# 57 | Akizzi, the Ruler of Qatna, to Amenhotep IV, the King of Egypt |
| EA# 58 | Tehu-Teshupa, a Ruler in North Canaan(?), to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 58 | ihutisupa to king(?) obverse |
| EA# 59 | Tunip peoples to pharaoh |
| EA# 60 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Amenhotep III, the king of Egypt |
| EA# 61 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Amenhotep III, the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 62 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Pahanate, the Commissioner of Sumur |
| EA# 63 | 'Abdi-Ashtarti, a Ruler in Southern Canaan (Gath?), to the king of Egypt |
| EA# 64 | 'Abdi-Ashtarti, a Ruler in Southern Canaan (Gath?), to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 65 | 'Abdi-Ashtarti, a Ruler in Southern Canaan (Gath?), to the king of Egypt #3 |
| EA# 66 | Rib-Hadda, the Ruler of Byblos, to Haya, the Vizier of Egypt |
| EA# 67 | An unknown ruler in the north of Canaan to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 68 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA# 69 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Egypt official |
| EA# 70 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 71 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Haya, the Vizier of Egypt |
| EA# 72 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #3 |
| EA# 73 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #1 |
| EA# 74 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #4 |
| EA# 75 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #5 |
| EA# 76 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #6 |
| EA# 77 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #2 |
| EA# 78 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #7 |
| EA# 79 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to he king of Egypt #8 |
| EA# 80 | Gubal king Rib-Addi(?) to the king of Egypt #9 |
| EA# 81 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #10 |
| EA# 82 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #3 |
| EA# 83 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #11 |
| EA# 84 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #12 |
| EA# 85 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #13 |
| EA# 86 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #4 |
| EA# 87 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #5 |
| EA# 88 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #14 |
| EA# 89 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #15 |
| EA# 90 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #16 |
| EA# 91 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #17 |
| EA# 92 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #18 |
| EA# 93 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #6 |
| EA# 94 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #19 |
| EA# 95 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the Egyptian Senior Official |
| EA# 96 | An army commander to Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos |
| EA# 97 | Yappah-Hadda to Shumu-Hadda |
| EA# 98 | Yappah-Hadda to Yanhamu, the Egyptian Commissioner |
| EA# 99 | The king of Egypt to the ruler of the city of 'Ammiya(?) |
| EA#100 | The city of Irqata to the king of Egypt |
| EA#100 | Tagi to Lab-Aya |
| EA#101 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #20 |
| EA#102 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to Yanhamu(?), the Egyptian commissioner |
| EA#103 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #21 |
| EA#104 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #22 |
| EA#105 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #23 |
| EA#106 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #24 |
| EA#107 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #25 |
| EA#108 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #26 |
| EA#109 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #27 |
| EA#110 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #28 |
| EA#111 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #29 |
| EA#112 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #30 |
| EA#113 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #31 |
| EA#114 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #32 |
| EA#115 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #33 |
| EA#116 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #34 |
| EA#117 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #35 |
| EA#118 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #36 |
| EA#119 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #37 |
| EA#120 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #38 |
| EA#121 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #39 |
| EA#122 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #40 |
| EA#123 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #41 |
| EA#124 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #42 |
| EA#125 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #43 |
| EA#126 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #44 |
| EA#127 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #45 |
| EA#128 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #46 |
| EA#129 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #47 |
| EA#129 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #48 |
| EA#130 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #49 |
| EA#131 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #50 |
| EA#132 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #51 |
| EA#133 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #52 |
| EA#134 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #53 |
| EA#135 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #54 |
| EA#136 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #55 |
| EA#137 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #56 |
| EA#138 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #57 |
| EA#139 | Ilirabih the city of Byblos to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#140 | Ilirabih the city of Byblos to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#141 | Beruta king Ammunira to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#142 | Beruta king Ammunira to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#143 | Beruta king Ammunira to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#144 | Zimredda, the ruler of Sidon, to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#145 | Zimredda, the ruler of Sidon, to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#146 | Tyre king Abi-Milki to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#147 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #2 |