An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in higher education, usually at a college or university. These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is the bachelor's degree, although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as associate and foundation degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include engineer's degrees, master's degrees and doctorates.

In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, honours degrees are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class.

History

Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate

The doctorate (Latin: doceo, "I teach") first appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: licentia docendi) at a medieval university.^[1] Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible.^[1] The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved by the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.^[2] This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi).^[2] While the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.^[2]

In universities, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild.^[3] The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous,^[4] but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.

Today the terms "master" (from the Latin magister, lit. 'teacher'), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university, they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place.

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology – Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), law – Legum Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and medicine – Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology, law, and medicine were then called "philosophy", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities.

George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in medieval Islamic madrasas in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities.^[5] Alfred Guillaume,^[6] Syed Farid al-Attas^[6] and Devin J. Stewart agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the university degree.^[7] However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory.^{[8][9][10][11]} Devin J. Stewart finds that the ijazat al-ifta, license to teach Islamic law and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ijaza was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity.^[12]

The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine.^[13]

The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh.

Emergence of the bachelor's degree

In medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric and logic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin baccalaureus, a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight. Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin gradus ("step").

Evolution of the terminology of degrees

The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine and law were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.

The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado", (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor".

Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities

In the past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain, Lambeth degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury.^[14] The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the Peter's Pence Act 1533, which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope.^[15]

Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter, was granted limited degree awarding powers by royal charter in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The University College of North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the University of Keele) until 1962. Following the Education Reform Act 1988, many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the University of London, many of which are now effectively universities in their own right.^[16]

Academic dress

In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.

Laws on granting and use of degrees

In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia,^[17] the United Kingdom^[18] and Israel.^[19] The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by fraud laws.^[20][21]

Indicating earned degrees

Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title, post-nominal letters, a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries.

Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree.^[22]

For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned.^[23] For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively,^[24][25] in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage,^[26] particularly in order to distinguish the Oxbridge MA from an earned MA.^[27] Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for Lambeth degrees (awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury),^[26] 'Dunelm' for Durham University,^[28][29] 'Ebor' for the University of York^[30] and 'Exon' for the University of Exeter.^[31] The Ancient universities of Scotland and the University of London have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See Universities in the United Kingdom § Post-nominal abbreviations for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.)

Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK and York University in Canada or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists,^[32] and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.^[23]

Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of Science in the US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science, MD for Doctor of Medicine and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy.^[33][34]

Online degree

An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a distance learning basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.^[35]

Degree systems by regions

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Asia

Bangladesh, India and Pakistan

Bangladesh and India mostly follow the colonial era British system for the classification of degrees,^[36] however, Pakistan has recently switched^[when?] to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry, etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc).

Information Technology degrees are conferred specially in the field of computer science, and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures, Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in engineering.^[37] In Pakistan, engineering degrees are Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are the same in curriculum, duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree (Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS)), dental degree (Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS)) and computer application degrees (Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA)) and Master of Computer Application (MCA).

Indonesia

Indonesia follows the colonial Dutch system for the classification of degrees. However, Indonesia has been dropping the Dutch titles and develop its own distinctions.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka, like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission.^[38]

Africa

Tunisia

Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on a scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or a Higher National Certificate (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for.

South Africa

In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite the exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution.

Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include Arts, Commerce, Engineering, Law, Medicine, Science, and Theology.

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)^[39] has developed a credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating.

Kenya

In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least a C+ (55-59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering or B.Sc. Electrical and Electronics Engineering, are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while a degree in education or management takes around four years.

For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60-69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one scientific paper in a peer-reviewed journal.

To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study.

Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows a 2-6-3-3 education system to replace the existing 8-4-4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017.^[40][41]

Europe

Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the Bologna Declaration in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through the Bologna Process, which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor's/Licence – Master's – Doctorate. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and the use of Diploma Supplements to make comparisons between qualifications easier.

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members.^[42] The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework. In 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all the major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national legislation.^[43]

Since 2008, the European Union has been developing the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to higher education, the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of the EHEA.^[44][45]

Austria

In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:

• the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and
• the three cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process.

The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.^[46]

Belgium

While higher education is regulated by the three communities of Belgium, all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the Bologna structure during the 2000s. The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; French: Bachelier-Master-Doctorat or Dutch: Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat).

In the first cycle, the Bachelor's degree is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include the one-year Advanced Bachelor's degree [fr; nl] degree (French: Bachelier de spécialisation, lit. 'Specialized Bachelor'; Dutch: Bachelor-na-bachelor, lit. 'Bachelor-after-bachelor') and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes.

Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle (EQF level 7) by Master's degrees [fr] that last two years, completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The master's degree can be followed by an Advanced Master's degree [fr; nl] (French: Master de spécialisation, lit. 'Specialized Master'; Dutch: Master-na-master, lit. 'Master-after-master') that lasts one year (60 ECTS).

The third cycle of Belgium's higher education is covered by the Doctorate [fr] degree (French: Doctorat; Dutch: Doctoraat) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long PhD, depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates).

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master).

The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend a six year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. (equivalent to MD degree in the United States of America)^{[clarification needed]}, or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for veterinary physicians. They can also get a "big doctorate" (Ph.D.) after another three or four years of study.

Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more degrees that were awarded.^{[citation needed]}

Denmark

Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree (kandidatgrad). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies.

Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points.^[47]

The academic degrees available at universities are:^[47]

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