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Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a Protestant Christian tradition whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley.^[1] George Whitefield and John's brother Charles Wesley were also significant early leaders in the movement. They were named Methodists for "the methodical way in which they carried out their Christian faith".^[2][3] Calling it "the grand depositum" of the Methodist faith, Wesley specifically taught that the propagation of the doctrine of entire sanctification was the reason that God raised up the Methodists in the world.^[4][5] Methodism originated as a revival movement within Anglicanism originating out of the Church of England in the 18th century and became a separate denomination after Wesley's death. The movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States and beyond because of vigorous missionary work,^[6] and today has about 80 million adherents worldwide.^{[nb 1][7]}

Wesleyan theology, which is upheld by the Methodist denominations, focuses on sanctification and the transforming effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing doctrines include the new birth,^[8] assurance,^[9][10] imparted righteousness, the possibility of entire sanctification,^[4] and obedience to God manifested in performing works of piety. Scripture is considered the primary authority, but Methodists also look to Christian tradition, including the historic creeds. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is achievable for all.^[11] This is the Wesleyan-Arminian doctrine,^{[nb 2]} as opposed to the Reformed (Calvinist) position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several other early leaders of the movement were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the Calvinist position.

The movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage, in addition to tent revivals and camp meetings held at certain times of the year.^[12] Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, while worship in American Methodism varies depending on the Methodist denomination and congregation.^[13] Methodist worship distinctives include the observance of the quarterly lovefeast, the watchnight service on New Year's Eve, as well as altar calls in which people are invited to experience the New Birth and entire sanctification.^[14][15] Its emphasis on growing in grace after the New Birth (and after being entirely sanctified) led to the creation of class meetings for encouragement in the Christian life.^[16] Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition, and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of Methodism.^[17]

In addition to evangelism, Methodism is known for its charity, as well as support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through works of mercy that "flow from the love of God and neighbor" evidenced in the entirely sanctified believer.^[18][19][20] These ideals, the Social Gospel, are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools to follow Christ's command to spread the gospel and serve all people.^[21][22][19] Methodists are historically known for their adherence to the doctrine of nonconformity to the world, reflected by their traditional standards of a commitment to sobriety, prohibition of gambling, regular attendance at class meetings, and weekly observance of the Friday fast.^[23][24]

Early Methodists were drawn from all levels of society, including the aristocracy,^{[nb 3]} but the Methodist preachers took the message to labourers and criminals who tended to be left outside organized religion at that time. In Britain, the Methodist Church had a major effect in the early decades of the developing working class (1760–1820).^[26] In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves, who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition.^[27]

Origins

The Methodist revival began in England with a group of men, including John Wesley (1703–1791) and his younger brother Charles (1707–1788), as a movement within the Church of England in the 18th century.^[28][29] The Wesley brothers founded the "Holy Club" at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College.^[30] The club met weekly and they systematically set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick and the poor, as well as prisoners. The fellowship were branded as "Methodist" by their fellow students because of the way they used "rule" and "method" to go about their religious affairs.^[31] John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery and turned it into a title of honour.^[31][32]

In 1735, at the invitation of the founder of the Georgia Colony, General James Oglethorpe, both John and Charles Wesley set out for America to be ministers to the colonists and missionaries to the Native Americans.^[33] Unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church. At a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his "heart strangely warmed".^[34] He records in his journal: "I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance was given me that He had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death."^[35] Charles had reported a similar experience a few days previously. Considering this a pivotal moment, Daniel L. Burnett writes: "The significance of Wesley's Aldersgate Experience is monumental ... Without it the names of Wesley and Methodism would likely be nothing more than obscure footnotes in the pages of church history."^[36]

The Wesley brothers immediately began to preach salvation by faith to individuals and groups, in houses, in religious societies, and in the few churches which had not closed their doors to evangelical preachers.^[37] John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609). Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield (1714–1770), Howell Harris (1714–1773),^[38] and Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon (1707–1791)^[39] were notable for being Calvinistic Methodists.

George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade.^[37] Whitefield, who had been a fellow student of the Wesleys and prominent member of the Holy Club at Oxford, became well known for his unorthodox, itinerant ministry, in which he was dedicated to open-air preaching – reaching crowds of thousands.^[37] A key step in the development of John Wesley's ministry was, like Whitefield, to preach in fields, collieries and churchyards to those who did not regularly attend parish church services.^[37] Accordingly, many Methodist converts were those disconnected from the Church of England; Wesley remained a cleric of the Established Church and insisted that Methodists attend their local parish church as well as Methodist meetings because only an ordained minister could perform the sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion.^[2]

Faced with growing evangelistic and pastoral responsibilities, Wesley and Whitefield appointed lay preachers and leaders.^[37] Methodist preachers focused particularly on evangelising people who had been "neglected" by the established Church of England. Wesley and his assistant preachers organized the new converts into Methodist societies.^[37] These societies were divided into groups called classes – intimate meetings where individuals were encouraged to confess their sins to one another and to build up each other. They also took part in love feasts which allowed for the sharing of testimony, a key feature of early Methodism.^[40] Growth in numbers and increasing hostility impressed upon the revival converts a deep sense of their corporate identity.^[37] Three teachings that Methodists saw as the foundation of Christian faith were:

1. People are all, by nature, "dead in sin".
2. They are justified by faith alone.
3. Faith produces inward and outward holiness.^[41]

Wesley's organisational skills soon established him as the primary leader of the movement. Whitefield was a Calvinist, whereas Wesley was an outspoken opponent of the doctrine of predestination.^[42] Wesley argued (against Calvinist doctrine) that Christians could enjoy a second blessing – entire sanctification (Christian perfection) in this life: loving God and their neighbours, meekness and lowliness of heart and abstaining from all appearance of evil.^[8][43] These differences put strains on the alliance between Whitefield and Wesley,^[42] with Wesley becoming hostile toward Whitefield in what had been previously close relations. Whitefield consistently begged Wesley not to let theological differences sever their friendship and, in time their friendship was restored, though this was seen by many of Whitefield's followers to be a doctrinal compromise.^[44]

Many clergy in the established church feared that new doctrines promulgated by the Methodists, such as the necessity of a new birth for salvation – the first work of grace, of justification by faith and of the constant and sustained action of the Holy Spirit upon the believer's soul, would produce ill effects upon weak minds.^[45] Theophilus Evans, an early critic of the movement, even wrote that it was "the natural Tendency of their Behaviour, in Voice and Gesture and horrid Expressions, to make People mad". In one of his prints, William Hogarth likewise attacked Methodists as "enthusiasts" full of "Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism".^[45] Other attacks against the Methodists were physically violent – Wesley was nearly murdered by a mob at Wednesbury in 1743.^[46] The Methodists responded vigorously to their critics and thrived despite the attacks against them.^[47]

Initially, the Methodists merely sought reform within the Church of England (Anglicanism), but the movement gradually departed from that Church. George Whitefield's preference for extemporaneous prayer rather than the fixed forms of prayer in the Book of Common Prayer, in addition to his insistence on the necessity of the new birth, set him at odds with Anglican clergy.^[48]

As Methodist societies multiplied, and elements of an ecclesiastical system were, one after another, adopted, the breach between John Wesley and the Church of England gradually widened. In 1784, Wesley responded to the shortage of priests in the American colonies due to the American Revolutionary War by ordaining preachers for America with power to administer the sacraments.^[49] Wesley's actions precipitated the split between American Methodists and the Church of England (which held that only bishops could ordain people to ministry).^[50]

With regard to the position of Methodism within Christendom, "John Wesley once noted that what God had achieved in the development of Methodism was no mere human endeavor but the work of God. As such it would be preserved by God so long as history remained."^[51] Calling it "the grand depositum" of the Methodist faith, Wesley specifically taught that the propagation of the doctrine of entire sanctification was the reason that God raised up the Methodists in the world.^[4][5] In light of this, Methodists traditionally promote the motto "Holiness unto the Lord".^[3]

The influence of Whitefield and Lady Huntingdon on the Church of England was a factor in the founding of the Free Church of England in 1844. At the time of Wesley's death there were over 500 Methodist preachers in British colonies and the United States.^[37] Total membership of the Methodist societies in Britain was recorded as 56,000 in 1791, rising to 360,000 in 1836 and 1,463,000 by the national census of 1851.^[52]

Early Methodism experienced a radical and spiritual phase that allowed women authority in church leadership. The role of the woman preacher emerged from the sense that the home should be a place of community care and should foster personal growth. Methodist women formed a community that cared for the vulnerable, extending the role of mothering beyond physical care. Women were encouraged to testify their faith. However the centrality of women's role sharply diminished after 1790 as Methodist churches became more structured and more male dominated.^[53]

The Wesleyan Education Committee, which existed from 1838 to 1902, has documented the Methodist Church's involvement in the education of children. At first most effort was placed in creating Sunday Schools but in 1836 the British Methodist Conference gave its blessing to the creation of "Weekday schools".^[54][55]

Methodism spread throughout the British Empire and, mostly through Whitefield's preaching during what historians call the First Great Awakening, in colonial America. After Whitefield's death in 1770, however, American Methodism entered a more lasting Wesleyan and Arminian phase of development.^[56] Revival services and camp meetings were used "for spreading the Methodist message", with Francis Asbury stating that they were "our harvest seasons".^[57] Henry Boehm reported that at a camp meeting in Dover in 1805, 1100 persons received the New Birth and 600 believers were entirely sanctified.^[57] Around the time of John Swanel Inskip's leadership of the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Christian Holiness in the mid to latter 1800s, 80 percent of the membership of the North Georgia Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South professed being entirely sanctified.^[57]

Theology

Many Methodist bodies, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the United Methodist Church, base their doctrinal standards on the Articles of Religion,^[59] John Wesley's abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England that excised its Calvinist features.^[60] Some Methodist denominations also publish catechisms, which concisely summarise Christian doctrine.^[58] Methodists generally accept the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed as declarations of shared Christian faith.^{[58]: 30–33 [61]} Methodism also affirms the traditional Christian belief in the triune Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) as well as the orthodox understanding of the person of Jesus Christ as God incarnate who is both fully divine and fully human.^[62] Methodism emphasizes doctrines that indicate the power of the Holy Spirit to strengthen the faith of believers and to transform their personal lives.^[63]

Methodism is broadly evangelical in doctrine and is characterized by Wesleyan theology;^[64] John Wesley is studied by Methodists for his interpretation of church practice and doctrine.^[58]: 38 At its heart, the theology of John Wesley stressed the life of Christian holiness: to love God with all one's heart, mind, soul and strength and to love one's neighbour as oneself.^[65][66] One popular expression of Methodist doctrine is in the hymns of Charles Wesley.^[67] Since enthusiastic congregational singing was a part of the early evangelical movement, Wesleyan theology took root and spread through this channel.^[68][69] Martin V. Clarke, who documented the history of Methodist hymnody, states:

Theologically and doctrinally, the content of the hymns has traditionally been a primary vehicle for expressing Methodism's emphasis on salvation for all, social holiness, and personal commitment, while particular hymns and the communal act of participating in hymn singing have been key elements in the spiritual lives of Methodists.^[70]

Salvation

Wesleyan Methodists identify with the Arminian conception of free will, as opposed to the theological determinism of absolute predestination.^{[71][nb 2]} Methodism teaches that salvation is initiated when one chooses to respond to God, who draws the individual near to him (the Wesleyan doctrine of prevenient grace), thus teaching synergism.^[75][76] Methodists interpret Scripture as teaching that the saving work of Jesus Christ is for all people (unlimited atonement) but effective only to those who respond and believe, in accordance with the Reformation principles of sola gratia (grace alone) and sola fide (faith alone).^[77] John Wesley taught four key points fundamental to Methodism:

1. A person is free not only to reject salvation but also to accept it by an act of free will.
2. All people who are obedient to the gospel according to the measure of knowledge given them will be saved.
3. The Holy Spirit assures a Christian that they are justified by faith in Jesus (assurance of faith).^[9][78]
4. Christians in this life are capable of Christian perfection and are commanded by God to pursue it.^[79]

After the first work of grace (the new birth),^[8] Methodist soteriology emphasizes the importance of the pursuit of holiness in salvation,^[80] a concept best summarized in a quote by Methodist evangelist Phoebe Palmer who stated that "justification would have ended with me had I refused to be holy."^[81] Thus, for Methodists, "true faith ... cannot subsist without works."^[82] Methodism, inclusive of the holiness movement, thus teaches that "justification conditional on obedience and progress in sanctification",^[81] emphasizing "a deep reliance upon Christ not only in coming to faith, but in remaining in the faith."^[83] John Wesley taught that the keeping of the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments,^[84] as well as engaging in the works of piety and the works of mercy, were "indispensable for our sanctification".^[82]

Methodists also believe in the second work of grace – Christian perfection, also known as entire sanctification, which removes original sin and makes the believer holy.^[8] John Wesley explained, "entire sanctification, or Christian perfection, is neither more nor less than pure love; love expelling sin, and governing both the heart and life of a child of God. The Refiner's fire purges out all that is contrary to love."^[85][86]

Methodist churches teach that apostasy can occur through a loss of faith or through sinning.^[87][88] If a person backslides but later decides to return to God, he or she must confess his or her sins and be entirely sanctified again (the Arminian doctrine of conditional security).^[89][90]

Sacraments

Methodists hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution. Methodism has inherited its liturgy from Anglicanism, although Wesleyan theology tends to have a stronger "sacramental emphasis" than that held by evangelical Anglicans.^[91]

In common with most Protestants, Methodists recognize two sacraments as being instituted by Christ: Baptism and Holy Communion (also called the Lord's Supper).^[92] Most Methodist churches practice infant baptism, in anticipation of a response to be made later (confirmation), as well as baptism of believing adults.^[93] The Catechism for the Use of the People Called Methodists states that, " Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour."^[58]: 26 In the United Methodist Church, the explanation of how Christ's presence is made manifest in the elements (bread and wine) is described as a "Holy Mystery".^[94]

Methodist churches generally recognize sacraments to be a means of grace.^[95] John Wesley held that God also imparted grace by other established means such as public and private prayer, Scripture reading, study and preaching, public worship, and fasting; these constitute the works of piety.^[96] Wesley considered means of grace to be "outward signs, words, or actions ... to be the ordinary channels whereby might convey to men, preventing , justifying or sanctifying grace."^[97] Specifically Methodist means, such as the class meetings, provided his chief examples for these prudential means of grace.^[98]

Sources of teaching

American Methodist theologian Albert Outler, in assessing John Wesley's own practices of theological reflection, proposes a methodology termed the "Wesleyan Quadrilateral".^[99] Wesley's Quadrilateral is referred to in Methodism as "our theological guidelines" and is taught to its ministers (clergy) in seminary as the primary approach to interpreting Scripture and gaining guidance for moral questions and dilemmas faced in daily living.^{[100]: 76–88}

Traditionally, Methodists declare the Bible (Old and New Testaments) to be the only divinely inspired Scripture and the primary source of authority for Christians.^[101] The historic Methodist understanding of Scripture is based on the superstructure of Wesleyan covenant theology.^[102] Methodists also make use of tradition, drawing primarily from the teachings of the Church Fathers, as a secondary source of authority. Tradition may serve as a lens through which Scripture is interpreted. Theological discourse for Methodists almost always makes use of Scripture read inside the wider theological tradition of Christianity.^[103][104]

John Wesley contended that a part of the theological method would involve experiential faith.^[99] In other words, truth would be vivified in personal experience of Christians (overall, not individually), if it were really truth. And every doctrine must be able to be defended rationally. He did not divorce faith from reason. By reason, one asks questions of faith and seeks to understand God's action and will. Tradition, experience and reason, however, were subject always to Scripture, Wesley argued, because only there is the Word of God revealed "so far as it is necessary for our salvation."^[100]: 77

Prayer, worship, and liturgy

Early Methodism was known for its "almost monastic rigors, its living by rule, its canonical hours of prayer".^[105] It inherited from its Anglican patrimony the practice of reciting the Daily Office, which Methodist Christians were expected to pray.^[106] The first prayer book of Methodism, The Sunday Service of the Methodists with other occasional Services thus included the canonical hours of both Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer; these services were observed everyday in early Christianity, though on the Lord's Day, worship included the Eucharist.^{[107][106][108]} Later Methodist liturgical books, such as the Methodist Worship Book (1999) provide for Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer to be prayed daily; the United Methodist Church encourages its communicants to pray the canonical hours as "one of the essential practices" of being a disciple of Jesus.^[109][110] Some Methodist religious orders publish the Daily Office to be used for that community, for example, The Book of Offices and Services of The Order of Saint Luke contains the canonical hours to be prayed traditionally at seven fixed prayer times: Lauds (6 am), Terce (9 am), Sext (12 pm), None (3 pm), Vespers (6 pm), Compline (9 pm) and Vigil (12 am).^[111] Some Methodist congregations offer daily Morning Prayer.^[112]

With respect to public worship, Methodism was endowed by the Wesley brothers with worship characterised by a twofold practice: the ritual liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer on the one hand and the non-ritualistic preaching service on the other.^[113] This twofold practice became distinctive of Methodism because worship in the Church of England was based, by law, solely on the Book of Common Prayer and worship in the Nonconformist churches was almost exclusively that of "services of the word", i.e. preaching services, with Holy Communion being observed infrequently. John Wesley's influence meant that, in Methodism, the two practices were combined, a situation which remains characteristic of the tradition.^[113][114] Methodism has heavily emphasized "offerings of extempore and spontaneous prayer".^[115]

Historically, Methodist churches have devoutly observed the Lord's Day (Sunday) with a morning service of worship, along with an evening service of worship (with the evening service being aimed at seekers and focusing on "singing, prayer, and preaching"); the holding of a midweek prayer meeting on Wednesday evenings has been customary.^[116][117] 18th-century Methodist church services were characterized by the following pattern: "preliminaries (e.g., singing, prayers, testimonies), to a 'message,' followed by an invitation to commitment", the latter of which took the form altar call—a practice that a remains "a vital part" of worship.^[118][119] A number of Methodist congregations devote a portion of their Sunday evening service and mid-week Wednesday evening prayer meeting to having congregants share their prayer requests, in addition to hearing personal testimonies about their faith and experiences in living the Christian life.^[120] After listening to various members of the congregation voice their prayer requests, congregants may kneel for intercessory prayer.^[117] The Lovefeast, traditionally practiced quarterly, was another practice that characterized early Methodism as John Wesley taught that it was an apostolic ordinance.^[14] Worship, hymnology, devotional and liturgical practices in Methodism were also influenced by Lutheran Pietism and, in turn, Methodist worship became influential in the Holiness movement.^[121]

In America, the United Methodist Church and Free Methodist Church, as well as the Primitive Methodist Church and Wesleyan Methodist Church, have a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. When the Methodists in America were separated from the Church of England because of the American Revolution, John Wesley provided a revised version of the Book of Common Prayer called The Sunday Service of the Methodists; With Other Occasional Services (1784).^[122][123] Today, the primary liturgical books of the United Methodist Church are The United Methodist Hymnal and The United Methodist Book of Worship (1992). Congregations employ its liturgy and rituals as optional resources, but their use is not mandatory. These books contain the liturgies of the church that are generally derived from Wesley's Sunday Service and from the 20th-century liturgical renewal movement.

The British Methodist Church is less ordered, or less liturgical, in worship. It makes use of the Methodist Worship Book (similar to the Church of England's Common Worship), containing set services and rubrics for the celebration of other rites, such as marriage. The Worship Book is also ultimately derived from Wesley's Sunday Service.^[124]

A unique feature of American Methodism has been the observance of the season of Kingdomtide, encompassing the last 13 weeks before Advent, thus dividing the long season after Pentecost into two segments. During Kingdomtide, Methodist liturgy has traditionally emphasized charitable work and alleviating the suffering of the poor.^[125]

A second distinctive liturgical feature of Methodism is the use of Covenant Services. Although practice varies between national churches, most Methodist churches annually follow the call of John Wesley for a renewal of their covenant with God. It is common for each congregation to use the Covenant Renewal liturgy during the watchnight service in the night of New Year's Eve,^[126] though in Britain, these are often on the first Sunday of the year. Wesley's covenant prayer is still used, with minor modification, in the order of service:

Christ has many services to be done. Some are easy, others are difficult. Some bring honour, others bring reproach. Some are suitable to our natural inclinations and temporal interests, others are contrary to both ... Yet the power to do all these things is given to us in Christ, who strengthens us. ...I am no longer my own but yours. Put me to what you will, rank me with whom you will; put me to doing, put me to suffering; let me be employed for you or laid aside for you, exalted for you or brought low for you; let me be full, let me be empty, let me have all things, let me have nothing; I freely and wholeheartedly yield all things to your pleasure and disposal.^[109]: 290

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