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State of Palestine دولة فلسطين (Arabic) Dawlat Filasṭīn
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "فدائي" "Fida'i"[1] "Fedayeen Warrior"
Territory claimed by Palestine (green).[2] Claimed territory annexed by Israel (light green).
Status	UN observer state under Israeli occupation Recognized by 139 UN member states
Proclaimed capital Administrative center	Jerusalem (limited recognition)[a] Ramallah
Largest city	Rafah[b][3]
Official languages	Arabic
Demonym(s)	Palestinian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic[4]
• President	Mahmoud Abbas[c]
• Prime Minister	Mohammad Mustafa
• Speaker of the Parliament	Aziz Dweik
Legislature	National Council
Formation
• Declaration of Independence	15 November 1988
• UNGA observer state resolution	29 November 2012
• Sovereignty dispute with Israel	Ongoing[d][5][6]
Area
• Total	6,020[7] km2 (2,320 sq mi) (163rd)
• Water (%)	3.5[8]
• West Bank	5,655 km2
• Gaza Strip	365 km2[9]
Population
• 2023 estimate	5,483,450[10] (121st)
• Density	731/km2 (1,893.3/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2023 estimate
• Total	$36.391 billion[11] (138th)
• Per capita	$6,642[11] (140th)
GDP (nominal)	2021 estimate
• Total	$18.109 billion[11] (121st)
• Per capita	$3,464[11] (131st)
Gini (2016)	33.7[12] medium
HDI (2021)	0.715[13] high (106th)
Currency	Egyptian pound (EGP) Israeli new shekel (ILS) Jordanian dinar (JOD) (de facto)[14]
Time zone	UTC+2 (Palestine Standard Time)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (Palestine Summer Time)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side	right
Calling code	+970
ISO 3166 code	PS
Internet TLD	.ps

Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين, romanized: Filasṭīn^[e]), officially the State of Palestine (دولة فلسطين, Dawlat Filasṭīn),^[f] is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. It is officially recognized as a state by the United Nations and numerous countries. Palestine shares borders with Israel to the west and north, Jordan to the east and Egypt to the southwest. The state comprises the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip. The population of Palestine exceeds five million people, and covers an area of 6,020 square kilometres (2,320 sq mi). Jerusalem is its proclaimed capital and the official language is Arabic. The majority of Palestinians practice Islam while Christianity also has a significant presence. Gaza is the largest city, while Jerusalem is the proclaimed capital, with Ramallah serving as a current temporary administrative center.

The region of Palestine has played an important part in world history. The Canaanites, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans and Byzantines all left their mark on the land. In addition to its historical significance, Palestine holds profound religious importance for Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Throughout history the region has seen periods of coexistence and conflict between different religious and ethnic groups. Notably, during the Middle Ages, when Jewish communities faced persecution, they found refuge and protection under Muslim rule and the wider Islamic world. The Ottoman Empire, which controlled Palestine from the 16th century until its collapse at the end of World War I, provided a sanctuary for Jews fleeing persecution in Europe. The end of the Ottoman rule marked a new chapter in Palestine's history. Following World War I, the British Empire assumed control of the region under the League of Nations mandate. The British Mandate for Palestine, established in 1920, brought significant changes to the political and social landscape of the area, setting the stage for the conflicts and struggles that would follow.

The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 was accompanied by a forced displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians and created a large Palestinian refugee population.^[18] Subsequent Arab-Israeli wars, including the Six-Day War in 1967, resulted in occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 1988, PNC, the legislative body of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat, declared the establishment of Palestine. Signing of the Oslo Accords in the 1990s, negotiated between Israel and the PLO, aimed to establish a government and the eventual creation of Palestinian state. However, the implementation of the Oslo Accords faced significant challenges, including the expansion of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories and ongoing security concerns. In 2007, internal divisions between Palestinian political factions led to a takeover of the Gaza Strip by Hamas. Since then, the West Bank has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority, led by Fatah, and the Gaza Strip under the control of Hamas.

The Palestinian Authority governs parts of the West Bank while Hamas controls the Gaza Strip. Palestine faces various challenges, political violence, including territorial disputes, socio-economic disparities, freedom of movement and the impact of the occupation. Current effort is advancing the Palestinian cause and achieving a just and lasting resolution to the conflict. Palestine is a member of several international organizations including the Arab League and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and a non-member observer at the United Nations.^[19] It is one of the most educated countries in the Arab world and the Middle East, with massive reserves of oil and gas.

Etymology

Although the concept of the Palestine region and its geographical extent has varied throughout history, it is now considered to be composed by the modern State of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.^[20] General use of the term "Palestine" or related terms to the area at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea beside Syria has historically been taking place since the times of ancient Greece, with Herodotus being the first historian writing in the 5th century BC in The Histories of a "district of Syria, called Palaistine" in which Phoenicians interacted with other maritime peoples.^[21][22] The term "Palestine" (in Latin, Palæstina) is thought to have been a term coined by the Ancient Greeks for the area of land occupied by the Philistines, although there are other explanations.^[23]

Terminology

This article uses the terms "Palestine", "State of Palestine", "occupied Palestinian territory (oPt or OPT)" interchangeably depending on context. Specifically, the term "occupied Palestinian territory" refers as a whole to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory occupied by Israel since 1967. In all cases, any references to land or territory refer to land claimed by the State of Palestine.^[24]

History

Early religious

Judaism, one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, traces its origins back to historic Palestine during biblical times.^[25] It began with the biblical patriarch Abraham, who lived around 2000 BCE.^[26] According to Jewish tradition, God made a covenant with Abraham, promising him descendants and land.^[27] The Israelites, Abraham's descendants, settled in Canaan, which later became known as Palestine.^[28] They faced challenges such as enslavement, oppression, and exile.^[29] The Exodus from Egypt, led by Moses, is a pivotal event in Jewish history, symbolizing deliverance from slavery and the return to their ancestral homeland.^[30] During the 10th century BCE, under King David and King Solomon, the Israelite kingdom reached its peak.^[31] Jerusalem became the political and religious center, and the First Temple was constructed as a sacred site for Jewish worship.^[32]

However, internal conflicts and foreign invasions led to the division of the kingdom into Israel and Judah, and the First Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE.^[33][34] This event marked the Babylonian exile and dispersion of the Jewish people.^[35] During the Babylonian exile, Jewish religious practices and beliefs were reinforced and codified.^[36][37] Despite foreign domination, the exiled Jews maintained their faith and cultural identity.^[38] After the fall of the Babylonian empire, some Jews returned to Palestine and rebuilt the Second Temple in Jerusalem.^[38] Palestine came under the rule of various empires, but Jewish religious and cultural identity persisted.^[38] Different Jewish sects emerged, contributing to the diversity within Judaism and the development of religious interpretation and practice.^[38]

Christianity, one of the world's major religions, originated in ancient Palestine during the first century CE.^[39] It is closely tied to the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who is considered its central figure.^[39] Jesus was born in Bethlehem and spent much of his life in the region.^[39] His ministry began around the age of 30, where he preached a message of love, compassion, and the coming of God's kingdom.^[39] Jesus performed miracles, gathered disciples, and challenged religious authorities.^[39] The crucifixion of Jesus in Jerusalem is a crucial event in Christian history, believed to bring salvation and forgiveness of sins.^[39] His disciples, known as apostles, spread his teachings and established Christianity.^[39] The early growth of Christianity faced persecution but gained momentum after the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine in the fourth century CE.^[39] Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, leading to its widespread acceptance and the construction of churches and religious institutions.^[39]

Historic Palestine holds a significant place in the history of Islam, with several key events and developments taking place in the region.^[40] One of the pivotal events in Islam is the Isra and Miraj, which refers to the night journey and ascension of Muhammad.^[40] According to Islamic tradition, during the Isra, Muhammad was transported from Mecca to Jerusalem in a single night, where he led a congregational prayer at the Al-Aqsa Mosque.^[40] This event solidified Jerusalem's importance as a holy city in Islam.^[40] The Miraj, the subsequent ascension of Muhammad to the heavens, is believed to have taken place from the Al-Aqsa Mosque.^[40] During this spiritual journey, Muhammad is said to have encountered various prophets and received instructions for the Muslim community, including the command to establish the five daily prayers (Salah).^[40] The Qibla, the direction Muslims face during prayer, initially faced towards Jerusalem.^[40] However, in the early years of Islam, the Qibla was changed to face Mecca. This change occurred after the Muslims migrated from Mecca to Medina and solidified the religious and symbolic significance of Mecca as the holiest city in Islam.^[40]

Roman Empire

In 63 BCE, Roman General Pompey captured Jerusalem, marking the beginning of Roman rule in the region.^[41] Judea became a client kingdom under Roman control, with local rulers appointed by the Romans.^[41] The Herodian dynasty, established by Herod the Great, ruled over Judea as Roman client kings.^[41] Herod initiated ambitious building projects, including the expansion and renovation of the Second Temple in Jerusalem.^[41] The Roman rule faced resistance from Jewish factions.^[41] The First Jewish-Roman War erupted in 66 CE, resulting in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE by Roman forces under Titus.^[42] Another major revolt, known as the Bar Kokhba Revolt, took place in 132-136 CE but was ultimately crushed by the Romans.^[43]

After the Jewish revolts, the Romans abolished the client kingdom and transformed Judea into a Roman province called Judea.^[44] The Roman administration imposed direct rule, leading to the dispersal of Jewish communities and the exile of many Jews. The destruction of the Second Temple and the Roman occupation contributed to the Jewish diaspora, the scattering of Jewish communities throughout the Roman Empire and beyond.^[44] Jewish populations settled in various regions, including Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.^[44]

Palestine, particularly Jerusalem, became a significant center for early Christianity. Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection took place in Jerusalem, and it became a focal point for Christian pilgrimage and worship.^[44] Christian communities grew, and numerous churches were established in the region.^[44] In the 4th century, the Roman Empire transitioned into the Byzantine Empire. Palestine remained under Byzantine control, and Christianity continued to flourish, with the construction of important religious sites and the development of Christian theology and institutions.^[44]

Muslim conquest and Middle Ages

The Islamic conquest of Palestine occurred during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab in the mid-7th century CE.^[45] Muslim armies, under the command of General Shurahbil ibn Hasana, entered Palestine and gradually brought the region under Muslim rule.^[46] The conquest of Jerusalem took place in 638 CE when the city surrendered to the Muslim forces. Following the Islamic conquest of Palestine in the 7th century CE, Jerusalem became a focal point of Muslim worship. The Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, situated in the Haram al-Sharif compound, became prominent Islamic landmarks and centers of spiritual and religious activities.

The First Crusade was launched in 1096 with the goal of recapturing the Holy Land from Muslim rule. In 1099, the Crusaders captured Jerusalem after a siege and established the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city witnessed a violent massacre, with much of the Muslim and Jewish population being killed. Following the capture of Jerusalem, the Crusaders established several Crusader states in the region, including the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Tripoli, and the Principality of Antioch. These states were ruled by European nobles and were characterized by a blend of European and Middle Eastern cultures.

The Crusader states faced constant threats from Muslim forces and neighboring Muslim rulers. The Crusaders built numerous fortifications and castles to defend their territories. They also engaged in trade and diplomatic relations with other regional powers. Muslim forces, particularly the Ayyubids and later the Mamluks, continued their military campaigns against the Crusaders. Over time, they managed to recapture most of the Crusader states, including Jerusalem, in 1291, effectively ending the era of Crusader rule in Palestine.

Ottoman Palestine

By 14th century, the Ottoman Empire took control of the entire region.^[47][48] In 1516, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim I, conquered Palestine from the Mamluks, who had ruled the region for several centuries.^[47][48] Under Ottoman rule, Palestine became part of a larger administrative unit known as the Sanjak of Jerusalem, which was initially part of the larger province of Syria.^[47] The Sanjak of Jerusalem included areas such as Jerusalem, Nablus, Gaza, and Jaffa.^[47]

The empire encouraged agricultural development, and various measures were taken to enhance agricultural productivity.^[47] The construction of irrigation systems, such as the qanat system, helped improve water distribution and facilitated agricultural expansion.^[47] Under Ottoman rule, Palestine saw an increase in the cultivation of cash crops like cotton and olives, which were exported to other regions.^[47] Religiously, Palestine held great significance for Muslims, Christians, and Jews.^[47] The Ottomans maintained control over the holy sites in Jerusalem, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.^[47] They also regulated access to these sites and implemented various policies to manage religious affairs.^[47]

Under the Ottoman Empire, Jews and Christians enjoyed a significant degree of protection and autonomy, particularly within the framework of the Ottoman millet system.^[49] The millet system recognized religious communities as separate legal entities, allowing them to govern their own internal affairs, including religious, educational, and legal matters.^[49] During periods of Jewish persecution in Europe, particularly during the late 15th century and onward, the Ottoman Empire provided a relative haven for Jewish refugees.^{[50][51][52][53]} Expelled Jews from Spain were rescued and then given asylum in the Ottoman ruled Palestine.^[54]

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as nationalist sentiments grew across the region, Palestinian Arab nationalism also began to emerge.^[55] Intellectuals and elites in Palestine expressed a sense of identity and called for greater autonomy and self-governance.^[56] This period coincided with the rise of the Young Turks movement within the Ottoman Empire, which introduced some political reforms but also faced opposition from various groups.^[57] In the early 20th century, the Zionist movement gained momentum, aiming to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine.^[58][59] Jewish immigration increased, and Zionist organizations purchased land from local landowners, leading to tensions between Jews and Arabs.^[60] Abdul Hamid, the last Khalifa of the world, oppose Zionist movement, but failed. The end of the Ottoman Empire's rule in Palestine came with the conclusion of World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the region came under British control with the implementation of the British Mandate for Palestine in 1920.^[61][62]

British Mandate of Palestine

Under British rule, the history of Palestine witnessed significant political, social, and economic transformations.^[63] The British Mandate for Palestine began in 1920 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.^[63] The mandate was established under the League of Nations, with the objective of facilitating the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine while protecting the rights of the Arab population.^[63]

During the initial years of the mandate, tensions between Jewish and Arab communities emerged. The British faced challenges in balancing the interests and demands of both groups. In 1936, a widespread Arab revolt erupted, demanding an end to Jewish immigration and land sales to Jewish settlers. The revolt was eventually suppressed by the British, leading to increased restrictions on both Arab and Jewish activities. As Jewish immigration continued, especially in the years leading up to and following World War II, the Zionist movement gained momentum. Jewish settlements expanded, and tensions between Jewish and Arab communities escalated. The White Paper was released by the British government, which rejected Peel Commission and proposed a unified Palestine as future country for both Arabs and Jews.^[63] As a response and acceptance by Arabs, revolt was ceased.^[63] However, the Zionist entity refused to accept the plan and started protesting against the White Paper.^[63] Military groups such as Irgun, Stern Gang and Haganah, started preparing for terror attacks.^[64] These includes King David Hotel bombing, Deir Yassin massacre and Haifa Oil Refinery massacre.^[65] Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir were behind these attacks, who later became political leader of future Israel.^[66][67] The British struggled to maintain control and peace, and in 1947, they decided to withdraw from Palestine.

Arab–Israeli War of 1948

In 1947, the UN adopted a partition plan for a two-state solution in the remaining territory of the mandate. The plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by the Arab leaders, and Britain refused to implement the plan. On the eve of final British withdrawal, the Jewish Agency for Israel, headed by David Ben-Gurion, declared the establishment of the State of Israel according to the proposed UN plan. The Arab Higher Committee did not declare a state of its own and instead, together with Transjordan, Egypt, and the other members of the Arab League of the time, commenced military action resulting in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the war, Israel gained additional territories that were designated to be part of the Arab state under the UN plan. Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip, and Transjordan occupied and then annexed the West Bank. Egypt initially supported the creation of an All-Palestine Government but disbanded it in 1959. Transjordan never recognized it and instead decided to incorporate the West Bank with its own territory to form Jordan. The annexation was ratified in 1950 but was rejected by the international community.

Occupation and Arab–Israeli wars

In 1964, when the West Bank was controlled by Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established there with the goal to confront Israel. The Palestinian National Charter of the PLO defines the boundaries of Palestine as the whole remaining territory of the mandate, including Israel. The Six-Day War in 1967, when Israel fought against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, ended with Israel occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, besides other territories.^{[68][better source needed]} Following the Six-Day War, the PLO moved to Jordan, but later relocated to Lebanon in 1971.^{[69][better source needed]}

The October 1974 Arab League summit designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and reaffirmed "their right to establish an independent state of urgency."^[70] In November 1974, the PLO was recognized as competent on all matters concerning the question of Palestine by the UN General Assembly granting them observer status as a "non-state entity" at the UN.^[71][72] Through the Camp David Accords of 1979, Egypt signaled an end to any claim of its own over the Gaza Strip. In July 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank—with the exception of guardianship over Haram al-Sharif—to the PLO.

After Israel captured and occupied the West Bank from Jordan and Gaza Strip from Egypt, it began to establish Israeli settlements there. Administration of the Arab population of these territories was performed by the Israeli Civil Administration of the Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories and by local municipal councils present since before the Israeli takeover. In 1980, Israel decided to freeze elections for these councils and to establish instead Village Leagues, whose officials were under Israeli influence. Later this model became ineffective for both Israel and the Palestinians, and the Village Leagues began to break up, with the last being the Hebron League, dissolved in February 1988.^[73]

State of Palestine

In November 1988, the PLO legislature, while in exile, declared the establishment of the "State of Palestine". In the month following, it was quickly recognized by many states, including Egypt and Jordan. In the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the State of Palestine is described as being established on the "Palestinian territory", without explicitly specifying further. After the 1988 Declaration of Independence, the UN General Assembly officially acknowledged the proclamation and decided to use the designation "Palestine" instead of "Palestine Liberation Organization" in the UN.^[17][74] In spite of this decision, the PLO did not participate at the UN in its capacity of the State of Palestine's government.^[75]

Because of this, some of the countries that recognised the State of Palestine in their statements of recognition refer to the "1967 borders", thus recognizing as its territory only the occupied Palestinian territory, and not Israel. The UN membership application submitted by the State of Palestine also specified that it is based on the "1967 borders".^[2] During the negotiations of the Oslo Accords, the PLO recognised Israel's right to exist, and Israel recognised the PLO as representative of the Palestinian people. The 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence included a PNC call for multilateral negotiations on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 242 later known as "the Historic Compromise",^[76] implying acceptance of a two-state solution and no longer questioning the legitimacy of the State of Israel.^[77]

In 1993, in the Oslo Accords, Israel acknowledged the PLO negotiating team as "representing the Palestinian people", in return for the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace, acceptance of UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, and its rejection of "violence and terrorism".^[78] As a result, in 1994 the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA) territorial administration, that exercises some governmental functions^[d] in parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.^[87][88] As envisioned in the Oslo Accords, Israel allowed the PLO to establish interim administrative institutions in the Palestinian territories, which came in the form of the PNA. It was given civilian control in Area B and civilian and security control in Area A, and remained without involvement in Area C.

The Second Intifada, which lasted from 2000 to 2005, was a period of intense conflict and violence between Israelis and Palestinians.^[89] Despite the diplomatic efforts, the peace process suffered a severe setback in 1999 when negotiations between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat at the Camp David Summit failed to reach a final status agreement.^[89] Disagreements over the issues of Jerusalem, borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees proved insurmountable.^[89] Following the failure of the Camp David Summit in 2000, tensions between Israelis and Palestinians escalated dramatically.^[89] In September 2000, the Second Intifada, also known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada, erupted.^[89] The Second Intifada was characterized by a wave of violence, including suicide bombings, shootings, and Israeli military responses, resulting in a high number of casualties on both sides.^[89]

Efforts to revive the peace process continued, including the convening of the Taba Summit in January 2001. Although progress was made, negotiations eventually broke down due to the escalating violence and political changes in both Israeli and Palestinian leadership. In 2002, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield, a major military incursion into Palestinian cities in response to the ongoing violence.^[90] The operation aimed to dismantle Palestinian militant infrastructure and restore security.^[91] However, it resulted in significant destruction and loss of life. Israel implemented stringent security measures, including checkpoints, curfews, and the construction of a separation barrier, to curb the attacks.^[92] These measures, while intended to enhance security, also led to restrictions on the movement of Palestinians, economic hardship, and the exacerbation of humanitarian conditions.

Efforts to mediate a ceasefire and resume peace negotiations were ongoing throughout this period. International actors, including the United States, the United Nations, and the European Union, made attempts to broker a truce and revive the peace process. However, these efforts faced significant challenges, including the deep-seated distrust, the escalation of violence, and the inability to address the core issues of the conflict. During this period, international efforts to revive the peace process gained momentum. The Quartet on the Middle East, consisting of the United States, the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations, proposed the Roadmap for Peace in 2003. The roadmap outlined a series of steps towards the establishment of an independent Palestinian state alongside a secure Israel. However, the implementation of the roadmap faced significant challenges, and progress remained limited.

Post-Arafat period

In 2004, Arafat's health deteriorated, and he was confined to his headquarters in Ramallah by Israeli authorities.^[93][94] In November 2004, Yasser Arafat died, marking the end of an era for the Palestinian national movement.^[95][96] Following Arafat's death, Mahmoud Abbas, also known as Abu Mazen, assumed leadership of the Palestinian Authority.^[97][98] Abbas advocated for a negotiated settlement with Israel and worked towards a ceasefire agreement, leading to a relative decrease in violence. On March 22, 2004, Ahmed Yassin was assassinated in an airstrike carried out by the Israeli military.^[99] The assassination of Ahmed Yassin had profound implications for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the dynamics of the region.^[100] Hamas, under Yassin's leadership, was a powerful and influential force in Palestinian politics.^{[citation needed]} Yassin's assassination not only removed a key figurehead of the organization but also galvanized support for Hamas.^{[citation needed]} The act of targeting a prominent figure like Yassin also demonstrated Israel's willingness to employ targeted killings as a tactic, which further escalated the conflict and complicated efforts for peace.

In 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, withdrawing its military forces and dismantling settlements. The move was seen as a step towards Palestinian self-governance and the potential for progress. However, the withdrawal did not lead to a significant improvement in the overall situation, as Gaza soon fell under the control of the militant group Hamas. In 2005, following the implementation of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, the PNA gained full control of the Gaza Strip with the exception of its borders, airspace, and territorial waters.^[d]

Internal divisions between the two main Palestinian political factions, Fatah and Hamas, intensified during this period.^[101] In 2006, Hamas won a majority in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) elections, leading to a political standoff with Fatah.^[102] The power struggle eventually escalated into armed clashes and resulted in a split between the West Bank, governed by Fatah and the Palestinian Authority, and the Gaza Strip, controlled by Hamas.^[102] The division between the West Bank and Gaza complicated efforts to achieve Palestinian unity and negotiate a comprehensive peace agreement with Israel. Multiple rounds of reconciliation talks were held, but no lasting agreement was reached. The division also hindered the establishment of a unified Palestinian state and led to different governance structures and policies in the two territories.^[103] Throughout this period, there were sporadic outbreaks of violence and tensions between Palestinians and Israelis. Since 2001, Incidents of rocket attacks from Gaza into Israeli territory and Israeli military operations in response often resulted in casualties and further strained the situation.^[104] Following the inter-Palestinian conflict in 2006, Hamas took over control of the Gaza Strip (it already had majority in the PLC), and Fatah took control of the West Bank. From 2007, the Gaza Strip was governed by Hamas, and the West Bank by Fatah.^[105]

International efforts to revive the peace process continued. The United States, under the leadership of different administrations, made various attempts to broker negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians.^[106] However, significant obstacles such as settlement expansion, the status of Jerusalem, borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees, remained unresolved.^{[107][108][109][110]} In recent years, diplomatic initiatives have emerged, including the normalization agreements between Israel and several Arab states, known as the Abraham Accords.^[111] These agreements, while not directly addressing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, have reshaped regional dynamics and raised questions about the future of Palestinian aspirations for statehood.^[112][113] The status quo remains challenging for Palestinians, with ongoing issues of occupation, settlement expansion, restricted movement, and economic hardships.^[114] Efforts to find a just and lasting solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict continue, but the path towards a comprehensive peace agreement and the establishment of a viable, independent Palestinian state remains uncertain.

A modern day city scene across Jerusalem, with view of Temple Mount and Al Aqsa

Geography

The areas claimed by the State of Palestine lie in the Southern Levant. The Gaza Strip borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Egypt to the south, and Israel to the north and east. The West Bank is bordered by Jordan to the east, and Israel to the north, south, and west. Thus, the two enclaves constituting the area claimed by State of Palestine have no geographical border with one another, being separated by Israel. These areas would constitute the world's 163rd largest country by land area.^{[7][115][116][better source needed]}

The West Bank is located on the western side of the Jordan River and is characterized by a diverse landscape. It consists of fertile valleys, such as the Jezreel Valley and the Jordan River Valley, as well as mountainous areas, including the Samarian and Judean mountain ranges.^[117] East Jerusalem, a part of the West Bank, is a significant component of the Palestinian territories. It is located on a plateau in the central highlands and is surrounded by valleys. The Old City of Jerusalem, with its historical and religious sites, is centrally located within East Jerusalem. The Gaza Strip is a small coastal enclave located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea.

Palestine has a number of environmental issues; issues facing the Gaza Strip include desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment; water-borne diseases; soil degradation; and depletion and contamination of underground water resources. In the West Bank, many of the same issues apply; although fresh water is much more plentiful, access is restricted by the ongoing dispute.^[118]

The Samarian Hills and Judean Hills are mountain ranges in the West Bank, with Mount Gerizim and Mount Hebron as their highest peaks.^[119] The Mount of Olives (Jabal Zaytun) is a significant hill east of Jerusalem, known for its religious sites.^[120] Mount Carmel extends into the northern West Bank and is renowned for its natural beauty.^[121] Three terrestrial ecoregions are found in the area: Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests, Arabian Desert, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.^[122] Palestine features significant lakes and rivers that play a vital role in its geography and ecosystems.^[123] The Jordan River flows southward, forming part of Palestine's eastern border and passing through the Sea of Galilee before reaching the Dead Sea.^[124] These waterways provide essential resources for agriculture, recreation, and support various ecosystems.^[123]

Climate

Temperatures in Palestine vary widely. The climate in the West Bank is mostly Mediterranean, slightly cooler at elevated areas compared with the shoreline, west to the area. In the east, the West Bank includes much of the Judean Desert including the western shoreline of the Dead Sea, characterised by dry and hot climate. Gaza has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) with mild winters and dry hot summers.^{[citation needed]} Spring arrives around March–April and the hottest months are July and August, with the average high being 33 °C (91 °F). The coldest month is January with temperatures usually at 7 °C (45 °F). Rain is scarce and generally falls between November and March, with annual precipitation rates approximately at 4.57 inches (116 mm).^[125]

Biodiversity

Palestine does not have officially recognized national parks or protected areas. However, there are areas within the West Bank that are considered to have ecological and cultural significance and are being managed with conservation efforts. These areas are often referred to as nature reserves or protected zones. Located near Jericho in the West Bank, Wadi Qelt is a desert valley with unique flora and fauna.

The reserve is known for its rugged landscapes, natural springs, and historical sites such as the St. George Monastery.^[126] Efforts have been made to protect the biodiversity and natural beauty of the area.^[127] The Judaean Desert is popular for "Judaean Camels". Qalqilya Zoo in Qalqilya Governorate, is the only zoo currently active in the country. Gaza Zoo was closed due to poor conditions. Israeli government have built various national parks in the Area C, which is also considered illegal under international law.

Government and politics

Palestine is a semi-presidential country. The country consists of the institutions that are associated with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which includes President of the State of Palestine^[128][c] – appointed by the Palestinian Central Council,^[131] Palestinian National Council – the legislature that established the State of Palestine^[4] and Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization – performs the functions of a government in exile,^{[129][130][132][133]} maintaining an extensive foreign-relations network. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is combination of several political parties.

These should be distinguished from the President of the Palestinian National Authority, Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) and PNA Cabinet, all of which are instead associated with the Palestinian National Authority. The State of Palestine's founding document is the Palestinian Declaration of Independence,^[4] and it should be distinguished from the unrelated PLO Palestinian National Covenant and PNA Palestine Basic Law.

President
Mahmoud Abbas

Prime Minister
Mohammad Mustafa

The Palestinian government is divided into two geographic entities — the Palestinian Authority governed by Fatah and have control over the territory of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, which is under control of the militant group Hamas.^[134][135] Fatah is a secular party, which was founded by Yasser Arafat and relatively enjoys a good relations with the western powers. On other hand, Hamas is a militant group, based on Palestinian nationalist and Islamic ideology, inspired by the Muslim Brotherhood.^[136][137] Hamas have tense relations with the United States, however receives support from Iran. Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine is another popular secular party, which was founded by George Habash. Mahmoud Abbas is the president of the country since 2005.^[138] Mohammad Shtayyeh was the prime minister of Palestine, who resigned in 2024.^[139] In 2024, Mohammad Mustafa was appointed as the new prime minister of the country, after resigning of Shtayyeh.^[140] While Yahya Sinwar is leader of Hamas government in the Gaza Strip.^[141] According to Freedom House, the PNA governs Palestine in an authoritarian manner, including by repressing activists and journalists critical of the government.^[142]

Jerusalem including Haram ash-Sharif, is claimed as capital by Palestine, which has been under occupation by Israel.^[143] Currently the temporary administration center is in Ramallah, which is 10 km from Jerusalem.^[144] Muqata hosts state ministries and representative office.^[145] The former building Gaza was destroyed in 2009 war.^[146] In 2000, a government building was built in Jerusalem suburb of Abu Dis, to house office of Yasser Arafat and Palestinian parliament.^[147] Since second intifada, condition of the town made this site unsuitable to operate as a capital, either temporarily or permanently.^[148] Nevertheless, the Palestinian entity have maintained their presence in the city. As few parts of the city is also under Palestinian control and many some countries have their consulates in Jerusalem.

Map of the Palestinian Governorates (official)

Map of showing Palestinian controlled areas

Law and security

The State of Palestine has a number of security forces, including a Civil Police Force, National Security Forces and Intelligence Services, with the function of maintaining security and protecting Palestinian citizens and the Palestinian State. All of these forces are part of Palestinian Security Services. The PSF is primarily responsible for maintaining internal security, law enforcement, and counterterrorism operations in areas under Palestinian Authority control.^[149]

The Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) is the standing army of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).^[150] It was established during the early years of the Palestinian national movement but has largely been inactive since the Oslo Accords.^[151] The PLA's role was intended to be a conventional military force but has shifted to a more symbolic and political role.^[152] There are various armed factions within Palestine, including Hamas and Islamic Jihad in the Gaza Strip and other smaller groups.^[153] These factions have their own armed wings (Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades and Al Quds Brigades) and maintain paramilitary capabilities.^[154] They primarily focus on resistance activities against Israeli occupation and have engaged in armed conflicts with Israel in the past.^[155]

The military capabilities of Palestine are significantly limited compared to the Israeli army (IDF).^[156] The Oslo Accords and subsequent agreements have placed restrictions on the size and armament of Palestinian security forces.^[157][158] The PA's security forces primarily focus on internal security rather than conventional military operations.^[159]

Administrative divisions

The State of Palestine is divided into sixteen administrative divisions.

The governorates in the West Bank are grouped into three areas per the Oslo II Accord. Area A forms 18% of the West Bank by area, and is administered by the Palestinian government.^[160][161] Area B forms 22% of the West Bank, and is under Palestinian civil control, and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control.^[160][161] Area C, except East Jerusalem, forms 60% of the West Bank, and is administered by the Israeli Civil Administration, however, the Palestinian government provides the education and medical services to the 150,000 Palestinians in the area,^[160] an arrangement agreed upon in the Oslo II accord by Israeli and Palestinian leadership. More than 99% of Area C is off limits to Palestinians, due to security concerns and is a point of ongoing negotiation.^[162][163] There are about 330,000 Israelis living in settlements in Area C.^[164] Although Area C is under martial law, Israelis living there are entitled to full civic rights.^[165] Palestinian enclaves currently under Palestinian administration in red (Areas A and B; not including Gaza Strip, which is under Hamas rule).

East Jerusalem (comprising the small pre-1967 Jordanian eastern-sector Jerusalem municipality together with a significant area of the pre-1967 West Bank demarcated by Israel in 1967) is administered as part of the Jerusalem District of Israel but is claimed by Palestine as part of the Jerusalem Governorate. It was effectively annexed by Israel in 1967, by application of Israeli law, jurisdiction and administration under a 1948 law amended for the purpose, this purported annexation being constitutionally reaffirmed (by implication) in Basic Law: Jerusalem 1980,^[160] but this annexation is not recognised by any other country.^[166] In 2010 of the 456,000 people in East Jerusalem, roughly 60% were Palestinians and 40% were Israelis.^[160][167] However, since the late 2000s, Israel's West Bank Security Barrier has effectively re-annexed tens of thousands of Palestinians bearing Israeli ID cards to the West Bank, leaving East Jerusalem within the barrier with a small Israeli majority (60%).^{[citation needed]} Under Oslo Accords, Jerusalem was proposed to be included in future negotiations and according to Israel, Oslo Accords prohibits the Palestinian Authority to operates in Jerusalem. However, certain parts of Jerusalem, those neighborhoods which are located outside the historic Old City but are part of East Jerusalem, were allotted to the Palestinian Authority.^[168]

Foreign relations

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) represents the State of Palestine and maintains embassies in countries that recognize it. The PLO also participates in international organizations as a member, associate, or observer. In some cases, due to conflicting sources, it is difficult to determine if the participation is on behalf of the State of Palestine, the PLO as a non-state entity, or the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). A majority of Arab and Muslim countries, including Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Yemen have supported the country, due to religious and cultural relations. Egypt and Jordan, apart from supporting, have also signed peace treaties with Israel. Egypt and Qatar acts as a mediator between Hamas controlled Gaza and Israel.^[170][171] Countries like India and Republic of Ireland have strongly showed support of an independent Palestine, coexisting with Israel.^[172][173]

In 1988, the State of Palestine's declaration of independence was acknowledged by the General Assembly with Resolution 43/177.^[174] In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, granting Palestine "non-member observer state" status, effectively recognizing it as a sovereign state.^{[175][176][177]} Sweden took a significant step in 2013 by upgrading the status of the Palestinian representative office to a full embassy. They became the first EU member state outside the former communist bloc to officially recognize the state of Palestine.^{[178][179][180]} Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=State_of_Palestine
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