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A Shinto shrine (神社, jinja, archaic: shinsha, meaning: "place of the god(s)")[1] is a structure whose main purpose is to house ("enshrine") one or more kami, the deities of the Shinto religion.[2]
The honden[note 1] (本殿, meaning: "main hall") is where a shrine's patron kami is/are enshrined.[2][3] The honden may be absent in cases where a shrine stands on or near a sacred mountain, tree, or other object which can be worshipped directly or in cases where a shrine possesses either an altar-like structure, called a himorogi, or an object believed to be capable of attracting spirits, called a yorishiro, which can also serve as direct bonds to a kami.[4] There may be a haiden (拝殿, meaning: "hall of worship") and other structures as well.
Although only one word ("shrine") is used in English, in Japanese, Shinto shrines may carry any one of many different, non-equivalent names like gongen, -gū, jinja, jingū, mori, myōjin, -sha, taisha, ubusuna or yashiro. Miniature shrines (hokora) can occasionally be found on roadsides. Large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines, sessha (摂社) or massha (末社).[note 2] Mikoshi, the palanquins which are carried on poles during festivals (matsuri), also enshrine kami and are therefore considered shrines.
In 927 CE, the Engi-shiki (延喜式, literally: "Procedures of the Engi Era") was promulgated. This work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined kami.[5] In 1972, the Agency for Cultural Affairs placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines (神社本庁).[6] Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine, are totally independent of any outside authority.[7] The number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000.[8]
Since ancient times, the Shake (社家) families dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions, and at some shrines the hereditary succession continues to present day.
The Unicode character representing a Shinto shrine (for example, on maps) is U+26E9 ⛩ SHINTO SHRINE.
Etymology
Jinja (神社) is the most general name for shrine.[9] Any place that owns a honden (本殿) is a jinja.[2] These two characters used to be read either "kamu-tsu-yashiro" or "mori" in kunyomi, both meaning "kami grove".[10] Both readings can be found for example in the Man'yōshū.[10]
Sha (社) itself was not an initially secular term. In Chinese it alone historically could refer to Tudigong, or soil gods, a kind of tutelary deity seen as subordinate to City Gods.[11] Such deities are also often called (神社; shèshén), or the same characters in the reverse order.[11] Its Kunyomi reading Yashiro (社) is a generic term for shinto shrine like jinja.[2][10]
It is also used as a suffix -sha or sometimes -ja (社), as in Shinmei-sha or Tenjin-ja, indicates a minor shrine that has received through the kanjō process a kami from a more important one.[9]
A mori (杜) is a place where a kami is present.[2] It can therefore be a shrine and, in fact, the characters 神社, 社 and 杜 can all be read "mori" ("grove").[10] This reading reflects the fact the first shrines were simply sacred groves or forests where kami were present.[10]
Hokora/hokura (神庫) is an extremely small shrine of the kind one finds for example along country roads.[12] The term Hokora (祠), believed to have been one of the first Japanese words for Shinto shrine, evolved from hokura (神庫), literally meaning "kami repository", a fact that seems to indicate that the first shrines were huts built to house some yorishiro.[note 3][13]
-gū (宮) indicates a shrine enshrining an imperial prince, but there are many examples in which it is used simply as a tradition.[9] The word gū (宮) often found at the end of names of shrines such as Hachimangu, Tenmangū, or Jingu (神宮) comes from the Chinese (宮; gong) meaning palace or a temple to a high deity.
Jingū (神宮) is a shrine of particularly high status that has a deep relationship with the Imperial household or enshrines an Emperor, as for example in the case of the Ise Jingū and the Meiji Jingū.[9] The name Jingū alone, however, can refer only to the Ise Jingū, whose official name is just "Jingū".[9] It is a formulation close to jinja (神社) with the character Sha (社) being replaced with gū (宮), emphasizing its high rank
Miya (宮) is the kunyomi of -gū (宮) and indicates a shrine enshrining a special kami or a member of the Imperial household like the Empress, but there are many examples in which it is used simply as a tradition.[2] During the period of state regulation, many -miya names were changed to jinja.
A taisha (大社) (the characters are also read ōyashiro) is literally a "great shrine" that was classified as such under the old system of shrine ranking, the shakaku (社格), abolished in 1946.[2][14] Many shrines carrying that shōgō adopted it only after the war.[9]
Chinjusha (鎮守社•鎮社, or tutelary shrine) comes from Chinju written as 鎮守 or sometimes just 鎮. meaning Guardian, and Sha (社)
Setsumatsusha (摂末社)[15][note 4] is a combination of two words Sessha (摂社, auxiliary shrine) and massha (末社, undershrine).[16] They are also called also called eda-miya (枝宮, branch shrines)[16] which contains Miya (宮)
During the Japanese Middle Ages, shrines started being called with the name gongen (権現), a term of Buddhist origin.[17] For example, in Eastern Japan there are still many Hakusan shrines where the shrine itself is called gongen.[17] Because it represents the application of Buddhist terminology to Shinto kami, its use was legally abolished by the Meiji government with the Shinto and Buddhism Separation Order (神仏判然令, Shin-butsu Hanzenrei), and shrines began to be called jinja.[17]
History
Early origins
Ancestors are kami to be worshipped. Yayoi period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other kami, and developed instruments, yorishiro (依り代), to evoke them. Yoshishiro means "approach substitute"[18] and were conceived to attract the kami to allow them physical space, thus making kami accessible to human beings.[18]
Village council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as yorishiro.[18] These sacred places and their yorishiro gradually evolved into today's shrines, whose origins can be still seen in the Japanese words for "mountain" and "forest", which can also mean "shrine".[18] Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great yorishiro: a big tree, surrounded by a sacred rope called shimenawa (標縄・注連縄・七五三縄).[18][note 5]
The first buildings at places dedicated to worship were hut-like structures built to house some yorishiro.[18] A trace of this origin can be found in the term hokura (神庫), "deity storehouse", which evolved into hokora (written with the same characters 神庫) and is considered to be one of the first words for shrine.[18][note 6]
First temporary shrines
True shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract kami to ensure good harvests.[19] These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, a tradition of which traces can be found in some rituals.[clarification needed][19]
Hints of the first shrines can still be found.[18] Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands—images or objects are therefore unnecessary.[18][20] For the same reason, it has a worship hall, a haiden (拝殿), but no place to house the kami, called shinden (神殿).[18] Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common shintai (神体) (a yorishiro actually housing the enshrined kami) in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied stream water to the plains where people lived.[21] Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, a phallus-shaped mountain in Nikko which constitutes Futarasan Shrine's shintai.[21] The name Nantai (男体) means "man's body".[21] The mountain provides water to the rice paddies below and has the shape of the phallic stone rods found in pre-agricultural Jōmon sites.[21]
First known shrine
The first known Shinto shrine was built in roughly 478.[22]
Rites and ceremonies
In 905 CE, Emperor Daigo ordered a compilation of Shinto rites and rules. Previous attempts at codification are known to have taken place, but, neither the Konin nor the Jogan Gishiki[23] survive. Initially under the direction of Fujiwara no Tokihira, the project stalled at his death in April 909. Fujiwara no Tadahira, his brother, took charge and in 912[24] and in 927 the Engi-shiki (延喜式, literally: "Procedures of the Engi Era") was promulgated in fifty volumes. This, the first formal codification of Shinto rites and Norito (liturgies and prayers) to survive, became the basis for all subsequent Shinto liturgical practice and efforts.[25] In addition to the first ten volumes of this fifty volume work (which concerned worship and the Department of Worship), sections in subsequent volumes addressing the Ministry of Ceremonies (治部省) and the Ministry of the Imperial Household (宮内省) also regulated Shinto worship and contained liturgical rites and regulation.[26] Felicia Gressitt Brock published a two-volume annotated English language translation of the first ten volumes with an introduction entitled Engi-shiki; procedures of the Engi Era in 1970.
Arrival and influence of Buddhism
The arrival of Buddhism in Japan in around the sixth century introduced the concept of a permanent shrine.[19] A great number of Buddhist temples were built next to existing shrines in mixed complexes called jingū-ji (神宮寺, literally: "shrine temple") to help priesthood deal with local kami, making those shrines permanent. Some time in their evolution, the word miya (宮), meaning "palace", came into use indicating that shrines had by then become the imposing structures of today.[18]
Once the first permanent shrines were built, Shinto revealed a strong tendency to resist architectural change, a tendency which manifested itself in the so-called shikinen sengū-sai (式年遷宮祭), the tradition of rebuilding shrines faithfully at regular intervals adhering strictly to their original design. This custom is the reason ancient styles have been replicated throughout the centuries to the present day, remaining more or less intact.[19] Ise Grand Shrine, still rebuilt every 20 years, is its best extant example. In Shinto it has played a particularly significant role in preserving ancient architectural styles.[19] Izumo Taisha, Sumiyoshi Taisha, and Nishina Shinmei Shrine in fact represent each a different style whose origin is believed to predate Buddhism in Japan. These three styles are known respectively as taisha-zukuri, sumiyoshi-zukuri, and shinmei-zukuri.
Shrines show various influences, particularly that of Buddhism, a cultural import which provided much of Shinto architecture's vocabulary. The rōmon (楼門, tower gate),[note 7] the haiden, the kairō (回廊, corridor), the tōrō, or stone lantern, and the komainu, or lion dogs, are all elements borrowed from Buddhism.
Shinbutsu shūgō and the jingūji
Until the Meiji period (1868–1912), shrines as they exist today were rare. With very few exceptions like Ise Grand Shrine and Izumo Taisha, they were just a part of a temple-shrine complex controlled by Buddhist clergy.[27] These complexes were called jingū-ji (神宮寺, literally: "shrine temple"), places of worship composed of a Buddhist temple and of a shrine dedicated to a local kami.[28] The complexes were born when a temple was erected next to a shrine to help its kami with its karmic problems. At the time, kami were thought to be also subjected to karma, and therefore in need of a salvation only Buddhism could provide. Having first appeared during the Nara period (710–794), the jingū-ji remained common for over a millennium until, with few exceptions, they were destroyed in compliance with the new policies of the Meiji administration in 1868.
Shinbutsu bunri
The Shinto shrine went through a massive change when the Meiji administration promulgated a new policy of separation of kami and foreign Buddhas (shinbutsu bunri) with the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order (神仏判然令, Shinbutsu Hanzenrei). This event triggered the haibutsu kishaku, a violent anti-Buddhist movement which in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate and during the Meiji Restoration caused the forcible closure of thousands of Buddhist temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return to lay life of monks, and the destruction of books, statues and other Buddhist property.[29]
Until the end of Edo period, local kami beliefs and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called shinbutsu shūgō (神仏習合), up to the point where even the same buildings were used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples.
After the law, the two would be forcibly separated. This was done in several stages. At first an order issued by the Jingijimuka in April 1868 ordered the defrocking of shasō and bettō (shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines).[30] A few days later, the 'Daijōkan' banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as gongen to Japanese kami and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines.[31] The third stage consisted of the prohibition against applying the Buddhist term Daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva) to the syncretic kami Hachiman at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū shrines.[31] In the fourth and final stage, all the defrocked bettō and shasō were told to become "shrine priests" (kannushi) and return to their shrines.[31] In addition, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami.[31]
After a short period in which it enjoyed popular favor, the process of separation of Buddhas and kami however stalled and is still only partially completed. To this day, almost all Buddhist temples in Japan have a small shrine (chinjusha) dedicated to its Shinto tutelary kami, and vice versa Buddhist figures (e.g. goddess Kannon) are revered in Shinto shrines.[32]
Shintai
The defining features of a shrine are the kami it enshrines and the shintai (or go-shintai if the honorific prefix go- is used) that houses it. While the name literally means "body of a kami", shintai are physical objects worshiped at or near Shinto shrines because a kami is believed to reside in them.[33] Shintai are not themselves part of kami, but rather just symbolic repositories which make them accessible to human beings for worship;[34] the kami inhabits them.[35] Shintai are also of necessity yorishiro, that is objects by their very nature capable of attracting kami.
The most common shintai are objects like mirrors, swords, jewels (for example comma-shaped stones called magatama), gohei (wands used during religious rites), and sculptures of kami called shinzō (神像),[note 8] but they can be also natural objects such as rocks, mountains, trees, and waterfalls.[33] Mountains were among the first, and are still among the most important, shintai, and are worshiped at several famous shrines. A mountain believed to house a kami, as for example Mount Fuji or Mount Miwa, is called a shintai-zan (神体山).[36] In the case of a man-made shintai, a kami must be invited to reside in it.[35]
The founding of a new shrine requires the presence of either a pre-existing, naturally occurring shintai (for example a rock or waterfall housing a local kami), or of an artificial one, which must therefore be procured or made to the purpose. An example of the first case are the Nachi Falls, worshiped at Hiryū Shrine near Kumano Nachi Taisha and believed to be inhabited by a kami called Hiryū Gongen.[37]
The first duty of a shrine is to house and protect its shintai and the kami which inhabits it.[35] If a shrine has more than one building, the one containing the shintai is called honden; because it is meant for the exclusive use of the kami, it is always closed to the public and is not used for prayer or religious ceremonies. The shintai leaves the honden only during festivals (matsuri), when it is put in portable shrines (mikoshi) and carried around the streets among the faithful.[35] The portable shrine is used to physically protect the shintai and to hide it from sight.[35]
Re-enshrinement
Often the opening of a new shrine will require the ritual division of a kami and the transferring of one of the two resulting spirits to the new location, where it will animate the shintai. This process is called kanjō, and the divided spirits bunrei (分霊, literally: "divided spirit"), go-bunrei (御分霊), or wakemitama (分霊).[38] This process of propagation, described by the priests, in spite of this name, not as a division but as akin to the lighting of a candle from another already lit, leaves the original kami intact in its original place and therefore does not alter any of its properties.[38] The resulting spirit has all the qualities of the original and is therefore "alive" and permanent.[38] The process is used often—for example during Shinto festivals (matsuri) to animate temporary shrines called mikoshi.[39]
The transfer does not necessarily take place from a shrine to another: the divided spirit's new location can be a privately owned object or an individual's house.[40] The kanjō process was of fundamental importance in the creation of all of Japan's shrine networks (Inari shrines, Hachiman shrines, etc.).
Shake families
The shake (社家) are families and the former social class that dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions within a shrine. The social class was abolished in 1871, but many shake families still continue hereditary succession until present day and some were appointed hereditary nobility (Kazoku) after the Meiji Restoration.[41]
Some of the most well-known shake families include:
- Arakida and Watarai of Ise Grand Shrine[42]
- Senge and Kitajima of Izumo Taisha[42]
- Ōnakatomi of Kasuga Taisha[42]
- Urabe of Yoshida Shrine[42]
Famous shrines and shrine networks
Those worshiped at a shrine are generally Shinto kami, but sometimes they can be Buddhist or Taoist deities, as well as others not generally considered to belong to Shinto.[note 9] Some shrines were established to worship living people or figures from myths and legends. An example is the Tōshō-gū shrines erected to enshrine Tokugawa Ieyasu, or the many shrines dedicated to Sugawara no Michizane, like Kitano Tenman-gū.
Often the shrines which were most significant historically do not lie in a former center of power like Kyoto, Nara, or Kamakura. For example, Ise Grand Shrine, the Imperial household's family shrine, is in Mie prefecture. Izumo-taisha, one of the oldest and most revered shrines in Japan, is in Shimane Prefecture.[43] This is because their location is that of a traditionally important kami, and not that of temporal institutions.
Some shrines exist only in one locality, while others are at the head of a network of branch shrines (分社, bunsha).[44] The spreading of a kami can be evoked by one or more of several different mechanisms. The typical one is an operation called kanjō, a propagation process through which a kami is invited to a new location and there re-enshrined. The new shrine is administered completely independent from the one it originated from.
However, other transfer mechanisms exist. In Ise Grand Shrine's case, for example, its network of Shinmei shrines (from Shinmei, 神明; another name for Amaterasu) grew due to two concurrent causes. During the late Heian period the cult of Amaterasu, worshiped initially only at Ise Grand Shrine, started to spread to the shrine's possessions through the usual kanjō mechanism.[44] Later, branch shrines started to appear further away. The first evidence of a Shinmei shrine far from Ise is given by the Azuma Kagami, a Kamakura-period text which refers to Amanawa Shinmei-gū's appearance in Kamakura, Kanagawa. Amaterasu began to be worshiped in other parts of the country because of the so-called tobi shinmei (飛び神明, flying Shinmei) phenomenon, the belief that she would fly to other locations and settle there.[44] Similar mechanisms have been responsible for the spreading around the country of other kami.
Notable shrines
The Ise Grand Shrine in Mie prefecture is, with Izumo-taisha, the most representative and historically significant shrine in Japan.[45] The kami the two enshrine play fundamental roles in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, two texts of great importance to Shinto.[45] Because its kami, Amaterasu, is an ancestor of the Emperor, Ise Grand Shrine is the Imperial Household's family shrine. Ise Grand Shrine is, however, dedicated specifically to the emperor and in the past, even his mother, wife and grandmother needed his permission to worship there.[46] Its traditional and mythological foundation date goes back to 4 BCE, but historians believe it was founded around the 3rd to 5th century CE.
Izumo Taisha in Shimane Prefecture is so old that no document about its origin survives, and the year of foundation is unknown. The shrine is the center of a series of sagas and myths.[45] The kami it enshrines, Ōkuninushi, created Japan before it was populated by Amaterasu's offspring, the Emperor's ancestors.[45] Because of its physical remoteness, in historical times Izumo has been eclipsed in fame by other sites, but there is still a widespread belief that in October all Japanese gods meet there.[45] For this reason, the month of October is also known as the "Month Without Gods" (神無月, Kannazuki, one of its names in the old lunar calendar), while at Izumo Taisha alone it is referred to as the Month With Gods (神在月・神有月, Kamiarizuki).[47]
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Fushimi Inari Taisha is the head shrine of the largest shrine network in Japan, which has more than 32,000 members (about a third of the total). Inari Okami worship started here in the 8th century and has continued ever since, expanding to the rest of the country. Located in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, the shrine sits at the base of a mountain also named Inari and includes trails up the mountain to many smaller shrines. Another very large example is the Yūtoku Inari Shrine in Kashima City, Saga Prefecture.
Ōita Prefecture's Usa Shrine (called in Japanese Usa Jingū or Usa Hachiman-gū) is, together with Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū, the head of the Hachiman shrine network.[48] Hachiman worship started here at least as far back as the Nara period (710–794). In the year 860, the kami was divided and brought to Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū in Kyoto, which became the focus of Hachiman worship in the capital.[49] Located on top of Mount Otokoyama, Usa Hachiman-gū is dedicated to Emperor Ōjin, his mother Empress Jingū, and female kami Hime no Okami.[50]
Itsukushima Shrine is, together with Munakata Taisha, at the head of the Munakata shrine network. Remembered for its torii raising from the waters, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The shrine is dedicated to the three daughters of Susano-o no Mikoto, kami of seas and storms and brother of the great sun kami.
Kasuga Taisha is a Shinto shrine in the city of Nara, in Nara Prefecture, Japan. Established in 768 AD and rebuilt several times over the centuries, it is the shrine of the Fujiwara family. The interior is noted for its many bronze lanterns, as well as the many stone lanterns that lead up the shrine. The architectural style Kasuga-zukuri takes its name from Kasuga Taisha's honden.
The Kumano Sanzan shrine complex, head of the Kumano shrine network, includes Kumano Hayatama Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Shingu), Kumano Hongu Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Tanabe), and Kumano Nachi Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Nachikatsuura).[51] The shrines lie between 20 and 40 km one from the other.[51] They are connected by the pilgrimage route known as "Kumano Sankeimichi" (熊野参詣道). The great Kumano Sanzan complex also includes two Buddhist temples, Seiganto-ji and Fudarakusan-ji.[note 10][51]
The religious significance of the Kumano region goes back to prehistoric times and predates all modern religions in Japan.[51] The area was, and still is, considered a place of physical healing.
Yasukuni shrine, in Tokyo, is dedicated to the soldiers and others who died fighting on behalf of the Emperor of Japan.
San Marino Jinja in Serravalle, San Marino, is the first Shinto shrine in Europe.
Shrine networks
There are estimated to be around 80,000 shrines in Japan.[52] The majority of Shinto shrines are associated with a shrine network.[8] This number includes only shrines with resident priests; if smaller shrines (such as roadside or household shrines) are included, the number would be twice the amount. These are highly concentrated;[53] over one-third are associated with Inari (over 30,000 shrines), and the top six networks comprise over 90% of all shrines, though there are at least 20 networks with over 200 shrines.
The next ten largest networks contain between 2,000 branches down to about 200 branches, and include the networks headed by Matsunoo-taisha, Kibune Shrine, and Taga-taisha, among others.
Inari shrines
The number of branch shrines gives an approximate indication of their religious significance, and neither Ise Grand Shrine nor Izumo-taisha can claim the first place.[43] By far the most numerous are shrines dedicated to Inari, tutelary kami of agriculture popular all over Japan, which alone constitute almost a third of the total.[44] Inari protects fishing, commerce, and productivity in general. Many modern Japanese corporations have shrines dedicated to Inari on their premises. Inari shrines are usually very small and easy to maintain, but can be very large, as in the case of Fushimi Inari Taisha, the head shrine of the network. The kami is enshrined in some Buddhist temples.[43]
The entrance to an Inari shrine is usually marked by one or more vermilion torii and two white foxes. This red color has come to be identified with Inari because of the prevalence of its use among Inari shrines and their torii.[54] The kitsune statues are at times mistakenly believed to be a form assumed by Inari, and they typically come in pairs, representing a male and a female, although sex is usually not obvious.[55] These fox statues hold a symbolic item in their mouths or beneath a front paw – most often a jewel and a key, but a sheaf of rice, a scroll, or a fox cub are common. Almost all Inari shrines, no matter how small, will feature at least a pair of these statues, usually flanking, on the altar, or in front of the main sanctuary.[55]
Hachiman shrines
A syncretic entity worshiped as both a kami and a Buddhist daibosatsu, Hachiman is intimately associated with both learning and warriors.[44] In the sixth or seventh century, Emperor Ōjin and his mother Empress Jingū came to be identified together with Hachiman.[56] First enshrined at Usa Hachiman-gū in Ōita Prefecture, Hachiman was deeply revered during the Heian period. According to the Kojiki, it was Ōjin who invited Korean and Chinese scholars to Japan, and for this reason he is the patron of writing and learning.
Because as Emperor Ōjin he was an ancestor of the Minamoto clan, Hachiman became the tutelary kami (氏神, ujigami) of the Minamoto samurai clan[44] of Kawachi (Osaka). After Minamoto no Yoritomo became shōgun and established the Kamakura shogunate, Hachiman's popularity grew, and he became by extension the protector of the warrior class the shōgun had brought to power. For this reason, the shintai of a Hachiman shrine is usually a stirrup or a bow.[56]
During the Japanese medieval period, Hachiman worship spread throughout Japan among samurai and the peasantry. There are 25,000 shrines in Japan dedicated to him, the second most numerous after those of the Inari network.[44] Usa Hachiman-gū is the network's head shrine together with Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū. However, Hakozaki Shrine and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū are historically no less significant shrines and are more popular.
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