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There is no standard variety of Scottish Gaelic; although statements below are about all or most dialects, the north-western dialects (Outer Hebrides, Skye and the Northwest Highlands) are discussed more than others as they represent the majority of speakers.
Gaelic phonology is characterised by:
- a phoneme inventory particularly rich in sonorant coronal phonemes (commonly nine in total)
- a contrasting set of palatalised and non-palatalised consonants
- strong initial word-stress and vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
- The presence of preaspiration of stops in certain contexts
- falling intonation in most types of sentences, including questions
- lenition and extreme sandhi phenomena
Due to the geographic concentration of Gaelic speakers along the western seaboard with its numerous islands, Gaelic dialectologists tend to ascribe each island its own dialect. On the mainland, no clear dialect boundaries have been established to date but the main areas are generally assumed to be Argyllshire, Perthshire, Moidart/Ardnamurchan, Wester Ross and Sutherland.
History of the discipline
Descriptions of the language have largely focused on the phonology. Welsh naturalist Edward Lhuyd published the earliest major work on Scottish Gaelic after collecting data in the Scottish Highlands between 1699 and 1700, in particular data on Argyll Gaelic and the now obsolete dialects of north-east Inverness-shire.[1]
Following a significant gap, the middle to the end of the twentieth century saw a great flurry of dialect studies in particular by Scandinavian scholars, again focussing largely on phonology:
- 1938 Nils Holmer Studies on Argyllshire Gaelic published by the University of Uppsala
- 1937 Carl Borgstrøm The Dialect of Barra published by Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap
- 1940 Carl Borgstrøm The Dialects of the Outer Hebrides published by Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap
- 1941 Carl Borgstrøm The Dialects of Skye and Ross-shire published by the Norwegian University Press
- 1956 Magne Oftedal The Gaelic of Leurbost, Isle of Lewis published by Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap
- 1957 Nils Holmer The Gaelic of Kintyre published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
- 1962 Nils Holmer The Gaelic of Arran published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
- 1966 Gordon MacGillFhinnein Gàidhlig Uibhist a Deas ("South Uist Gaelic") published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
- 1973 Elmar Ternes The Phonemic Analysis of Scottish Gaelic (focussing on Applecross Gaelic) published by the Helmut Buske Verlag
- 1978 Nancy Dorian East Sutherland Gaelic published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
- 1989 Máirtín Ó Murchú East Perthshire Gaelic published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
In the period between 1950 and 1963, fieldwork was carried out to document all then remaining Gaelic dialects, culminating in the publication of the five-volume Survey of the Gaelic Dialects of Scotland by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies in 1997. The survey collected data from informants as far south as Arran, Cowal, Brig o' Turk, east to Blairgowrie, Braemar and Grantown-on-Spey, north-east to Dunbeath and Portskerra and all areas west of these areas, including St Kilda.
Vowels
The following is a chart of the monophthong vowel phonemes appearing in Scottish Gaelic:[2]
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
unrounded | rounded | |||
Close | i | ɯ | u | |
Near-close | ɪ | |||
Close-mid | e | ə | ɤ | o |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | ||
Open | a |
All vowel phonemes except for /ɪ/ and /ə/ can be both long (represented with ⟨ː⟩) and short. Phonologically, /a/ behaves both as a front or back vowel depending on the geographical area and vowel length.
Diphthongs
The number of diphthongs in Scottish Gaelic depends to some extent on the dialect in question but most commonly, 9 or 10 are described: /ei, ɤi, ai, ui, iə, uə, ɛu, ɔu, au, ia/.[4]
Orthography
Stressed vowels are written as follows:
A table of vowels with pronunciations in the IPA Spelling Pronunciation Scottish English equivalents As in a, á , cat bata, ás à, a father/calm bàta, barr e , get le, teth è, é , wary, late/lady gnè, dé i , tin, sweet sin, ith ì, i evil, machine mìn, binn o , top poca, bog ò, o, ó , jaw, boat/go pòcaid, corr, mór u brute Tur ù, u brewed tùr, cum
The English equivalents given are approximate, and refer most closely to the Scottish pronunciation of Standard English. The vowel in English father is back in Southern English. The ⟨a⟩ in English late in Scottish English is the pure vowel eː rather than the more general diphthong eɪ. The same is true for the ⟨o⟩ in English boat, oː in Scottish English, instead of the diphthong əʊ.
Digraphs and trigraphsedit
The language uses many vowel combinations, which can be categorised into two types, depending on the status of one or more of the written vowels in the combinations.
Category 1: vowel plus glide vowels. In this category, vowels in digraphs/trigraphs that are next to a neighbouring consonant are for all intents and purposes part of the consonant, showing the broad or slender status of the consonant.
Spelling Pronunciation Preceding consonant Following consonant As in ai a~ɛ; (unstressed syllables) ɛ~ə~i preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant (stressed syllable) caileag, ainm ɛnɛm;
(unstressed syllables) iuchair, geamair, dùthaichài aː preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant àite, bara-làimhe ea ʲa~e~ɛ in part dialect variation preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant geal; deas; bean eà ʲaː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant ceàrr èa ɛː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad m, mh or p nèamh èa ia preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant other than m, mh or p dèan ei e~ɛ preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant eile; ainmeil èi ɛː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant sèimh éi eː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant fhéin eo ʲɔ preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant deoch eò ʲɔː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant ceòl eòi ʲɔː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant feòil eu eː~ia dialect variation, broadly speaking south versus north; (in most cases preceding labial consonants and in litery terms e.g. literary treun t̪ʰɾeːn (làidir being the more common term for 'strong') eː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant (preceding labial consonants) ceum, reubair io i, (j)ũ(ː) preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant fios, fionn ìo iː, iə preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant sgrìobh, mìos iu (j)u preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant piuthar, fliuch iù (j)uː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant diùlt iùi (j)uː preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant diùid oi ɔ, ɤ preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant boireannach, goirid òi ɔː preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant òinseach ói oː preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant cóig ui u, ɯi, uːi; (unstressed syllables) ə/ɨ preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant muir, uighean, tuinn ùi uː preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant dùin
Category 2: 'diphthongs' and 'triphthongs'. In this category, vowels are written together to represent either a diphthong, or what was in Middle Irish a diphthong.
Spelling Pronunciation Preceding consonant Following consonant As in ao ɯː preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant caol ia iə, ia preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant biadh, dian ua uə preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a broad consonant ruadh, uabhasach
Category 2 digraphs can by followed by Category 1 glides, and thereby form trigraphs:
Spelling Pronunciation Preceding consonant Following consonant As in aoi ɯː~ɤ preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant caoil; gaoithe iai iə, ia preceded by a slender consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant Iain uai uə preceded by a broad consonant or Ø followed by a slender consonant ruaidh, duais
Consonantsedit
Like the closely related languages Modern Irish and Manx, Scottish Gaelic contains what are traditionally referred to as "broad" and "slender" consonants. Historically, Primitive Irish consonants preceding the front vowels /e/ and /i/ developed a j-like coarticulation similar to the palatalized consonants found in Russian[5][6] while the consonants preceding the non-front vowels /a/, /o/ and /u/ developed a velar coarticulation. While Irish distinguishes "broad" (i.e. phonetically velar or velarised consonants) and "slender" (i.e. phonetically palatal or palatalised consonants), in Scottish Gaelic velarisation is only present for /n̪ˠ l̪ˠ rˠ/. This means that consonants marked "broad" by the orthography are, for the most part, simply unmarked, while "slender" consonants are palatal or palatalised. In the modern languages, there is sometimes a stronger contrast from Old Gaelic in the assumed meaning of "broad" and "slender"; the phonetic distinction can be more complex than mere "velarisation"/"palatalisation". For instance, the Gaelic "slender s" is so palatalised that it has become postalveolar ʃ. The main exception to this contrast are the labials (/p pʰ m f v/), which have lost their palatalised forms. The only trace of their original palatalisation is a glide found before a back vowel, e.g. beum /peːm/ ('stroke') vs beò /pjɔː/ ('alive'). Celtic linguists traditionally transcribe slender consonants with an apostrophe (or more accurately, a prime) following the consonant (e.g. ⟨m′⟩) and leave broad consonants unmarked.
Consonants of Scottish Gaelic Labial Coronal Dorsal Glottal Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Plosive p pʰ t̪ t̪ʰ tʲ tʲʰ kʲ kʲʰ k kʰ Fricative f v s̪ ʃ ç ʝ[a] x ɣ h Nasal m n̪ˠ n ɲ Approximant l̪ˠ l ʎ j[a] Rhotic Tap ɾ ɾʲ Trill rˠ
The unaspirated stops in some dialects (east and south) are voiced (see below), as in Manx and Irish. In the Gaelic of Sutherland and the MacKay Country, this is the case, while in all other areas full voicing is allophonic with regional variation. Voicing additionally occurs in certain environments, such as within breath groups and following homorganic nasals (see below).[citation needed] The variation suggests that the unaspirated stops at the underlying phonological level are voiced, with devoicing an allophonic variant that in some dialects has become the most common realisation. East Perthshire Gaelic reportedly lacks either a voicing or an aspiration distinction and has merged these stops. Irish dialects and Manx also have devoiced unaspirated consonants in certain environments.
Certain consonants (in particular the fricatives h x ç ɣ ʝ v and the lenis coronals l n ɾ ɾʲ) are rare in initial position except as a result of lenition.
Phonetic variationedit
Gaelic phonemes may have various allophones as well as dialectal or variations in pronunciation not shown in the chart above. The more common ones are:
Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Scottish_Gaelic_phonology_and_orthography
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