List of fusion experiments

Experiments directed toward developing fusion power are invariably done with dedicated machines which can be classified according to the principles they use to confine the plasma fuel and keep it hot.

The major division is between magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. In magnetic confinement, the tendency of the hot plasma to expand is counteracted by the Lorentz force between currents in the plasma and magnetic fields produced by external coils. The particle densities tend to be in the range of 10¹⁸ to 10²² m⁻³ and the linear dimensions in the range of 0.1 to 10 m. The particle and energy confinement times may range from under a millisecond to over a second, but the configuration itself is often maintained through input of particles, energy, and current for times that are hundreds or thousands of times longer. Some concepts are capable of maintaining a plasma indefinitely.

In contrast, with inertial confinement, there is nothing to counteract the expansion of the plasma. The confinement time is simply the time it takes the plasma pressure to overcome the inertia of the particles, hence the name. The densities tend to be in the range of 10³¹ to 10³³ m⁻³ and the plasma radius in the range of 1 to 100 micrometers. These conditions are obtained by irradiating a millimeter-sized solid pellet with a nanosecond laser or ion pulse. The outer layer of the pellet is ablated, providing a reaction force that compresses the central 10% of the fuel by a factor of 10 or 20 to 10³ or 10⁴ times solid density. These microplasmas disperse in a time measured in nanoseconds. For a fusion power reactor, a repetition rate of several per second will be needed.

Magnetic confinement

Within the field of magnetic confinement experiments, there is a basic division between toroidal and open magnetic field topologies. Generally speaking, it is easier to contain a plasma in the direction perpendicular to the field than parallel to it. Parallel confinement can be solved either by bending the field lines back on themselves into circles or, more commonly, toroidal surfaces, or by constricting the bundle of field lines at both ends, which causes some of the particles to be reflected by the mirror effect. The toroidal geometries can be further subdivided according to whether the machine itself has a toroidal geometry, i.e., a solid core through the center of the plasma. The alternative is to dispense with a solid core and rely on currents in the plasma to produce the toroidal field.

Mirror machines have advantages in a simpler geometry and a better potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. They generally require higher magnetic fields than toroidal machines, but the biggest problem has turned out to be confinement. For good confinement there must be more particles moving perpendicular to the field than there are moving parallel to the field. Such a non-Maxwellian velocity distribution is, however, very difficult to maintain and energetically costly.

The mirrors' advantage of simple machine geometry is maintained in machines which produce compact toroids, but there are potential disadvantages for stability in not having a central conductor and there is generally less possibility to control (and thereby optimize) the magnetic geometry. Compact toroid concepts are generally less well developed than those of toroidal machines. While this does not necessarily mean that they cannot work better than mainstream concepts, the uncertainty involved is much greater.

Somewhat in a class by itself is the Z-pinch, which has circular field lines. This was one of the first concepts tried, but it did not prove very successful. Furthermore, there was never a convincing concept for turning the pulsed machine requiring electrodes into a practical reactor.

The dense plasma focus is a controversial and "non-mainstream" device that relies on currents in the plasma to produce a toroid. It is a pulsed device that depends on a plasma that is not in equilibrium and has the potential for direct conversion of particle energy to electricity. Experiments are ongoing to test relatively new theories to determine if the device has a future.

Toroidal machine

Toroidal machines can be axially symmetric, like the tokamak and the reversed field pinch (RFP), or asymmetric, like the stellarator. The additional degree of freedom gained by giving up toroidal symmetry might ultimately be usable to produce better confinement, but the cost is complexity in the engineering, the theory, and the experimental diagnostics. Stellarators typically have a periodicity, e.g. a fivefold rotational symmetry. The RFP, despite some theoretical advantages such as a low magnetic field at the coils, has not proven very successful.

Tokamak^[1]1">edit

Device name	Status	Construction	Operation	Location	Organisation	Major/minor radius	B-field	Plasma current	Purpose	Image
T-1 (Tokamak-1)^[2]	Shut down	1957	1958–1959	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.625 m/0.13 m	1 T	0.04 MA	First tokamak
T-2 (Tokamak-2)^[2]	Recycled →FT-1	1959	1960–1970	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.62 m/0.22 m	1 T	0.04 MA
T-3 (Tokamak-3)^[2]	Shut down	1960	1962–?	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	1 m/0.12 m	3.5 T	0.15 MA	Overcame Bohm diffusion by a factor of 10, temperature 10 MK, confinement time 10 ms
T-5 (Tokamak-5)^[2]	Shut down	?	1962–1970	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.625 m/0.15 m	1.2 T	0.06 MA	Investigation of plasma equilibrium in vertical and horizontal direction
TM-1	Shut down	?	?	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute
TM-2	Shut down	?	1965	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute
TM-3	Shut down	?	1970	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute
FT-1^[2]	Recycled →CASTOR	T-2	1972–2002	Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	0.62 m/0.22 m	1.2 T	0.05 MA
ST (Symmetric Tokamak)	Shut down	Model C	1970–1974	Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	1.09 m/0.13 m	5.0 T	0.13 MA	First American tokamak, converted from Model C stellarator
T-6 (Tokamak-6)	Shut down	?	1970–1974	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.7 m/0.25 m	1.5 T	0.22 MA
TUMAN-2, 2A	Shut down	?	1971–1985	Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	0.4 m/0.08 m	1.5 T	0.012 MA
ORMAK (Oak Ridge tokaMAK)	Shut down		1971–1976	Oak Ridge	Oak Ridge National Laboratory	0.8 m/0.23 m	2.5 T	0.34 MA	First to achieve 20 MK plasma temperature
Doublet II	Shut down		1972–1974	San Diego	General Atomics	0.63 m/0.08 m	0.95 T	0.21 MA		1
ATC (Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor)	Shut down	1971–1972	1972–1976	Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	0.88 m/0.11 m	2 T	0.05 MA	Demonstrate compressional plasma heating
T-9 (Tokamak-9)	Shut down	?	1972–1977	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.36 m/0.07 m	1 T
TO-1	Shut down	?	1972–1978	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.6 m/0.13 m	1.5 T	0.07 MA
Alcator A (Alto Campo Toro)	Shut down	?	1972–1978	Cambridge	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	0.54 m/0.10 m	9.0 T	0.3 MA
JFT-2 (JAERI Fusion Torus 2)	Shut down	?	1972–1982	Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	0.9 m/0.25 m	1.8 T	0.25 MA
Turbulent Tokamak Frascati (TTF, torello)	Shut down		1973	Frascati	ENEA	0.3 m/0.04 m	1 T	0.005 MA	Study of turbulent plasma heating	2
Pulsator^[3]	Shut down	1970–1973	1973–1979	Garching	Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics	0.7 m/0.12 m	2.7 T	0.125 MA	Discovery of high-density operation with tokamaks	3
TFR (Tokamak de Fontenay-aux-Roses)	Shut down		1973–1984	Fontenay-aux-Roses	CEA	0.98 m/0.2 m	6 T	0.49 MA		4
T-4 (Tokamak-4)^[2]	Shut down	?	1974–1978	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.9 m/0.16 m	5 T	0.3 MA	Observed fast thermal quench before major plasma disruptions
Doublet IIA	Shut down		1974–1979	San Diego	General Atomics	0.66 m/0.15 m	0.76 T	0.35 MA
Petula-B	Shut down	?	1974–1986	Grenoble	CEA	0.72 m/0.18 m	2.7 T	0.23 MA
T-10 (Tokamak-10)^[2]	Operational		1975–	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	1.50 m/0.37 m	4 T	0.8 MA	Largest tokamak of its time
T-11 (Tokamak-11)	Shut down	?	1975–1984	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.7 m/0.25 m	1 T
PLT (Princeton Large Torus)	Shut down	1972–1975	1975–1986	Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	1.32 m/0.42 m	4 T	0.7 MA	First to achieve 1 MA plasma current
Divertor Injection Tokamak Experiment (DITE)	Shut down		1975–1989	Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	1.17 m/0.27 m	2.7 T	0.26 MA
JIPP T-II	Shut down	?	1976	Nagoya	Nagoya University	0.91 m/0.17 m	3 T	0.16 MA
TNT-A	Shut down	?	1976	Tokyo	Tokyo University	0.4 m/0.09 m	0.42 T	0.02 MA
T-8 (Tokamak-8)^[2]	Shut down	?	1976–?	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.28 m/0.048 m	0.9 T	0.024 MA	First D-shaped tokamak
Microtor^[4]	Shut down	?	1976–1983?	Los Angeles	UCLA	0.3 m/0.1 m	2.5 T	0.12 MA	Plasma impurity control and diagnostic development
Macrotor^[4]	Shut down	?	1970s–80s	Los Angeles	UCLA	0.9 m/0.4 m	0.4 T	0.1 MA	Understanding plasma rotation driven by radial current
TUMAN-3^[2]	Operational	?	1977– (1990–, 3M)	Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	0.55 m/0.23 m	3 T	0.18 MA	Study adiabatic compression, RF and NB heating, H-mode and parametric instability
Thor^[5]	Shut down		?	Milano	University of Milano	0.52 m/0.195 m	1 T	0.055 MA		5
FT (Frascati Tokamak)	Shut down		1978	Frascati	ENEA	0.83 m/0.20 m	10 T	0.8 MA
PDX (Poloidal Divertor Experiment)	Shut down	?	1978–1983	Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	1.4 m/0.4 m	2.4 T	0.5 MA
ISX-B	Shut down	?	1978–1984	Oak Ridge	Oak Ridge National Laboratory	0.93 m/0.27 m	1.8 T	0.2 MA	Superconducting coils, attempt high-beta operation
Doublet III	Shut down		1978–1985	San Diego	General Atomics	1.45 m/0.45 m	2.6 T	0.61 MA		6
T-12 (Tokamak-12)	Shut down	?	1978–1985	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	0.36 m/0.08 m	1 T	0.03 MA
Alcator C (Alto Campo Toro)	Shut down	?	1978–1986	Cambridge	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	0.64 m/0.16 m	13 T	0.8 MA
T-7 (Tokamak-7)^[2]	Recycled →HT-7^[6]	?	1979–1985	Moscow	Kurchatov Institute	1.2 m/0.31 m	3 T	0.3 MA	First tokamak with superconducting toroidal field coils
ASDEX (Axially Symmetric Divertor Experiment)^[7]	Recycled →HL-2A	1973–1980	1980–1990	Garching	Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik	1.65 m/0.4 m	2.8 T	0.5 MA	Discovery of the H-mode in 1982	7
FT-2^[2]	Operational	?	1980–	Saint Petersburg	Ioffe Institute	0.55 m/0.08 m	3 T	0.05 MA	H-mode physics, LH heating
TEXTOR (Tokamak Experiment for Technology Oriented Research)^[8]^[9]	Shut down	1976–1980	1981–2013	Jülich	Forschungszentrum Jülich	1.75 m/0.47 m	2.8 T	0.8 MA	Study plasma-wall interactions
TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor)^[10]	Shut down	1980–1982	1982–1997	Princeton	Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory	2.4 m/0.8 m	5.9 T	3 MA	Attempted scientific break-even, reached record fusion power of 10.7 MW and temperature of 510 MK
JFT-2M (JAERI Fusion Torus 2M)	Shut down	?	1983–2004	Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	1.3 m/0.35 m	2.2 T	0.5 MA		8
JET (Joint European Torus)^[11]	Shut down	1978–1983	1983–2023	Culham	United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority	2.96 m/0.96 m	4 T	7 MA	Records for fusion output power 16.1 MW (1997), fusion energy 69 MJ (2023)
Novillo^[12]^[13]	Shut down	NOVA-II	1983–2004	Mexico City	Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares	0.23 m/0.06 m	1 T	0.01 MA	Study plasma-wall interactions
JT-60 (Japan Torus-60)^[14]	Recycled →JT-60SA		1985–2010	Naka	Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute	3.4 m/1.0 m	4 T	3 MA	High-beta steady-state operation, highest fusion triple product	Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=List_of_fusion_experiments Text je dostupný za podmienok Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License 3.0 Unported; prípadne za ďalších podmienok. Podrobnejšie informácie nájdete na stránke Podmienky použitia. Navigácia: Veda > Analytika Antropológia Aplikované vedy Bibliometria Dejiny vedy Encyklopédie Filozofia vedy Forenzné vedy Humanitné vedy Knižničná veda Kryogenika Kryptológia Kulturológia Literárna veda Medzidisciplinárne oblasti Metódy kvantitatívnej analýzy Metavedy Metodika Metodológia vedy Náboženstvo a veda Náučná literatúra Podvody vo vede Popularizácia vedy Potravinárstvo Prírodné vedy Pseudoveda Scientometria Spoločenské vedy Teórie Teatrológia Technické vedy Technika Terminológia Umenie Výskum Veda Veda a technika podľa štátu Veda a technika podľa kontinentu Veda a technika podľa roka Veda v kozme Vedci Vedecká literatúra Vedecké databázy Vedecké experimenty Vedecké konferencie Vedecké metódy Vedecké ocenenia Vedecké organizácie Vedecké parky Vedeckí spisovatelia Vzdelávanie Záhady Príbuzné výrazy: Text je dostupný za podmienok Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License 3.0 Unported; prípadne za ďalších podmienok. Podrobnejšie informácie nájdete na stránke Podmienky použitia. www.astronomia.sk \| www.biologia.sk \| www.botanika.sk \| www.dejiny.sk \| www.economy.sk \| www.elektrotechnika.sk \| www.estetika.sk \| www.farmakologia.sk \| www.filozofia.sk \| Fyzika \| www.futurologia.sk \| www.genetika.sk \| www.chemia.sk \| www.lingvistika.sk \| www.politologia.sk \| www.psychologia.sk \| www.sexuologia.sk \| www.sociologia.sk \| www.veda.sk I www.zoologia.sk

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Magnetic confinement

Toroidal machine

Tokamak[1]1">edit

Tokamak^[1]1">edit