Internet Protocol version 4

Protocol stack
IPv4 packet
Abbreviation	IPv4
Purpose	Internetworking protocol
Developer(s)	DARPA
Introduction	1981; 43 years ago (1981)
Influenced	IPv6
OSI layer	Network layer
RFC(s)	791

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the first version of the Internet Protocol (IP) as a standalone specification. It is one of the core protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet and other packet-switched networks. IPv4 was the first version deployed for production on SATNET in 1982 and on the ARPANET in January 1983. It is still used to route most Internet traffic today,^[1] even with the ongoing deployment of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6),^[2] its successor.

IPv4 uses a 32-bit address space which provides 4,294,967,296 (2³²) unique addresses, but large blocks are reserved for special networking purposes.^[3][4]

History

Earlier versions of TCP/IP were a combined specification through TCP/IPv3. With IPv4, the Internet Protocol became a separate specification.^[5]

Internet Protocol version 4 is described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), replacing an earlier definition of January 1980 (RFC 760). In March 1982, the US Department of Defense decided on the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) as the standard for all military computer networking.^[6]

Purpose

The Internet Protocol is the protocol that defines and enables internetworking at the internet layer of the Internet Protocol Suite. In essence it forms the Internet. It uses a logical addressing system and performs routing, which is the forwarding of packets from a source host to the next router that is one hop closer to the intended destination host on another network.

IPv4 is a connectionless protocol, and operates on a best-effort delivery model, in that it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery. These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an upper layer transport protocol, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

Addressing

IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses which limits the address space to 4294967296 (2³²) addresses.

IPv4 reserves special address blocks for private networks (2²⁴ + 2²⁰ + 2¹⁶ ≈ 18 million addresses) and multicast addresses (2²⁸ ≈ 268 million addresses).

Address representations

IPv4 addresses may be represented in any notation expressing a 32-bit integer value. They are most often written in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four octets of the address expressed individually in decimal numbers and separated by periods.

For example, the quad-dotted IP address in the illustration (172.16.254.1) represents the 32-bit decimal number 2886794753, which in hexadecimal format is 0xAC10FE01.

CIDR notation combines the address with its routing prefix in a compact format, in which the address is followed by a slash character (/) and the count of leading consecutive 1 bits in the routing prefix (subnet mask).

Other address representations were in common use when classful networking was practiced. For example, the loopback address 127.0.0.1 was commonly written as 127.1, given that it belongs to a class-A network with eight bits for the network mask and 24 bits for the host number. When fewer than four numbers were specified in the address in dotted notation, the last value was treated as an integer of as many bytes as are required to fill out the address to four octets. Thus, the address 127.65530 is equivalent to 127.0.255.250.

Allocation

In the original design of IPv4, an IP address was divided into two parts: the network identifier was the most significant octet of the address, and the host identifier was the rest of the address. The latter was also called the rest field. This structure permitted a maximum of 256 network identifiers, which was quickly found to be inadequate.

To overcome this limit, the most-significant address octet was redefined in 1981 to create network classes, in a system which later became known as classful networking. The revised system defined five classes. Classes A, B, and C had different bit lengths for network identification. The rest of the address was used as previously to identify a host within a network. Because of the different sizes of fields in different classes, each network class had a different capacity for addressing hosts. In addition to the three classes for addressing hosts, Class D was defined for multicast addressing and Class E was reserved for future applications.

Dividing existing classful networks into subnets began in 1985 with the publication of RFC 950. This division was made more flexible with the introduction of variable-length subnet masks (VLSM) in RFC 1109 in 1987. In 1993, based on this work, RFC 1517 introduced Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR),^[7] which expressed the number of bits (from the most significant) as, for instance, /24, and the class-based scheme was dubbed classful, by contrast. CIDR was designed to permit repartitioning of any address space so that smaller or larger blocks of addresses could be allocated to users. The hierarchical structure created by CIDR is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and the regional Internet registries (RIRs). Each RIR maintains a publicly searchable WHOIS database that provides information about IP address assignments.

Special-use addresses

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and IANA have restricted from general use various reserved IP addresses for special purposes.^[4] Notably these addresses are used for multicast traffic and to provide addressing space for unrestricted uses on private networks.

Special address blocks

Address block	Address range	Number of addresses	Scope	Description
0.0.0.0/8	0.0.0.0–0.255.255.255	16777216	Software	Current (local, "this") network[4]
10.0.0.0/8	10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255	16777216	Private network	Used for local communications within a private network[8]
100.64.0.0/10	100.64.0.0–100.127.255.255	4194304	Private network	Shared address space[9] for communications between a service provider and its subscribers when using a carrier-grade NAT
127.0.0.0/8	127.0.0.0–127.255.255.255	16777216	Host	Used for loopback addresses to the local host[4]
169.254.0.0/16	169.254.0.0–169.254.255.255	65536	Subnet	Used for link-local addresses[10] between two hosts on a single link when no IP address is otherwise specified, such as would have normally been retrieved from a DHCP server
172.16.0.0/12	172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255	1048576	Private network	Used for local communications within a private network[8]
192.0.0.0/24	192.0.0.0–192.0.0.255	256	Private network	IETF Protocol Assignments, DS-Lite (/29)[4]
192.0.2.0/24	192.0.2.0–192.0.2.255	256	Documentation	Assigned as TEST-NET-1, documentation and examples[11]
192.88.99.0/24	192.88.99.0–192.88.99.255	256	Internet	Reserved.[12] Formerly used for IPv6 to IPv4 relay[13] (included IPv6 address block 2002::/16).
192.168.0.0/16	192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255	65536	Private network	Used for local communications within a private network[8]
198.18.0.0/15	198.18.0.0–198.19.255.255	131072	Private network	Used for benchmark testing of inter-network communications between two separate subnets[14]
198.51.100.0/24	198.51.100.0–198.51.100.255	256	Documentation	Assigned as TEST-NET-2, documentation and examples[11]
203.0.113.0/24	203.0.113.0–203.0.113.255	256	Documentation	Assigned as TEST-NET-3, documentation and examples[11]
224.0.0.0/4	224.0.0.0–239.255.255.255	268435456	Internet	In use for multicast[15] (former Class D network)
233.252.0.0/24	233.252.0.0–233.252.0.255	256	Documentation	Assigned as MCAST-TEST-NET, documentation and examples (Note that this is part of the above multicast space.)[15][16]
240.0.0.0/4	240.0.0.0–255.255.255.254	268435455	Internet	Reserved for future use[17] (former Class E network)
255.255.255.255/32	255.255.255.255	1	Subnet	Reserved for the "limited broadcast" destination address[4]

Private networks

Of the approximately four billion addresses defined in IPv4, about 18 million addresses in three ranges are reserved for use in private networks. Packets addresses in these ranges are not routable in the public Internet; they are ignored by all public routers. Therefore, private hosts cannot directly communicate with public networks, but require network address translation at a routing gateway for this purpose.

Reserved private IPv4 network ranges^[8]

Name	CIDR block	Address range	Number of addresses	Classful description
24-bit block	10.0.0.0/8	10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255	16777216	Single Class A
20-bit block	172.16.0.0/12	172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255	1048576	Contiguous range of 16 Class B blocks
16-bit block	192.168.0.0/16	192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255	65536	Contiguous range of 256 Class C blocks

Since two private networks, e.g., two branch offices, cannot directly interoperate via the public Internet, the two networks must be bridged across the Internet via a virtual private network (VPN) or an IP tunnel, which encapsulates packets, including their headers containing the private addresses, in a protocol layer during transmission across the public network. Additionally, encapsulated packets may be encrypted for transmission across public networks to secure the data.

Link-local addressing

RFC 3927 defines the special address block 169.254.0.0/16 for link-local addressing. These addresses are only valid on the link (such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection) directly connected to a host that uses them. These addresses are not routable. Like private addresses, these addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the internet. These addresses are primarily used for address autoconfiguration (Zeroconf) when a host cannot obtain an IP address from a DHCP server or other internal configuration methods.

When the address block was reserved, no standards existed for address autoconfiguration. Microsoft created an implementation called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA), which was deployed on millions of machines and became a de facto standard. Many years later, in May 2005, the IETF defined a formal standard in RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.

Loopback

The class A network 127.0.0.0 (classless network 127.0.0.0/8) is reserved for loopback. IP packets whose source addresses belong to this network should never appear outside a host. Packets received on a non-loopback interface with a loopback source or destination address must be dropped.

First and last subnet addresses

The first address in a subnet is used to identify the subnet itself. In this address all host bits are 0. To avoid ambiguity in representation, this address is reserved.^[18] The last address has all host bits set to 1. It is used as a local broadcast address for sending messages to all devices on the subnet simultaneously. For networks of size /24 or larger, the broadcast address always ends in 255.

For example, in the subnet 192.168.5.0/24 (subnet mask 255.255.255.0) the identifier 192.168.5.0 is used to refer to the entire subnet. The broadcast address of the network is 192.168.5.255.

However, this does not mean that every address ending in 0 or 255 cannot be used as a host address. For example, in the /16 subnet 192.168.0.0/255.255.0.0, which is equivalent to the address range 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255, the broadcast address is 192.168.255.255. One can use the following addresses for hosts, even though they end with 255: 192.168.1.255, 192.168.2.255, etc. Also, 192.168.0.0 is the network identifier and must not be assigned to an interface.^[19]: 31 The addresses 192.168.1.0, 192.168.2.0, etc., may be assigned, despite ending with 0.

In the past, conflict between network addresses and broadcast addresses arose because some software used non-standard broadcast addresses with zeros instead of ones.^[19]: 66

In networks smaller than /24, broadcast addresses do not necessarily end with 255. For example, a CIDR subnet 203.0.113.16/28 has the broadcast address 203.0.113.31.

As a special case, a /31 network has capacity for just two hosts. These networks are typically used for point-to-point connections. There is no network identifier or broadcast address for these networks.^[20]

Address resolution

Hosts on the Internet are usually known by names, e.g., www.example.com, not primarily by their IP address, which is used for routing and network interface identification. The use of domain names requires translating, called resolving, them to addresses and vice versa. This is analogous to looking up a phone number in a phone book using the recipient's name.

The translation between addresses and domain names is performed by the Domain Name System (DNS), a hierarchical, distributed naming system that allows for the subdelegation of namespaces to other DNS servers.

Unnumbered interface

A unnumbered point-to-point (PtP) link, also called a transit link, is a link that does not have an IP network or subnet number associated with it, but still has an IP address. First introduced in 1993,^{[21][22][23][24]} Phil Karn from Qualcomm is credited as the original designer.

The purpose of a transit link is to route datagrams. They are used to free IP addresses from a scarce IP address space or to reduce the management of assigning IP and configuration of interfaces. Previously, every link needed to dedicate a /31 or /30 subnet using 2 or 4 IP addresses per point-to-point link. When a link is unnumbered, a router-id is used, a single IP address borrowed from a defined (normally a loopback) interface. The same router-id can be used on multiple interfaces.

One of the disadvantages of unnumbered interfaces is that it is harder to do remote testing and management.

Address space exhaustion

In the 1980s, it became apparent that the pool of available IPv4 addresses was depleting at a rate that was not initially anticipated in the original design of the network.^[25] The main market forces that accelerated address depletion included the rapidly growing number of Internet users, who increasingly used mobile computing devices, such as laptop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and smart phones with IP data services. In addition, high-speed Internet access was based on always-on devices. The threat of exhaustion motivated the introduction of a number of remedial technologies, such as:

• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), for smaller ISP allocations
• Unnumbered interfaces removed the need for addresses on transit links.
• Network address translation (NAT) removed the need for the end-to-end principle.

By the mid-1990s, NAT was used pervasively in network access provider systems, along with strict usage-based allocation policies at the regional and local Internet registries.

The primary address pool of the Internet, maintained by IANA, was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks were allocated to the five RIRs.^[26][27] APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition technologies to IPv6, which is to be allocated under a restricted policy.^[28]

The long-term solution to address exhaustion was the 1998 specification of a new version of the Internet Protocol, IPv6.^[29] It provides a vastly increased address space, but also allows improved route aggregation across the Internet, and offers large subnetwork allocations of a minimum of 2⁶⁴ host addresses to end users. However, IPv4 is not directly interoperable with IPv6, so that IPv4-only hosts cannot directly communicate with IPv6-only hosts. With the phase-out of the 6bone experimental network starting in 2004, permanent formal deployment of IPv6 commenced in 2006.^[30] Completion of IPv6 deployment is expected to take considerable time,^[31] so that intermediate transition technologies are necessary to permit hosts to participate in the Internet using both versions of the protocol.

Packet structure

An IP packet consists of a header section and a data section. An IP packet has no data checksum or any other footer after the data section. Typically the link layer encapsulates IP packets in frames with a CRC footer that detects most errors, many transport-layer protocols carried by IP also have their own error checking.^[32]

Header

The IPv4 packet header consists of 14 fields, of which 13 are required. The 14th field is optional and aptly named: options. The fields in the header are packed with the most significant byte first (network byte order), and for the diagram and discussion, the most significant bits are considered to come first (MSB 0 bit numbering). The most significant bit is numbered 0, so the version field is actually found in the four most significant bits of the first byte, for example.

Version

The first header field in an IP packet is the four-bit version field. For IPv4, this is always equal to 4.

Internet Header Length (IHL)

Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=IPv4_network_address
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