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Hul'qumi'num'
Halq̓eméylem / Hul̓q̓umín̓um̓ / hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓
Native to	Canada, United States
Region	Southwestern British Columbia into Northern Washington
Ethnicity	Salish peoples
Native speakers	ca. 100[1] to 260 in Canada (2014)[2] 25 in US (1997)[2]
Language family	Salishan Coast Salish Central Hul'qumi'num'
Writing system	NAPA
Language codes
ISO 639-3	hur
Glottolog	halk1245
ELP	Halq'eméylem (Halkomelem)
Halkomelem is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Halkomelem (/ˌhɒlkəˈmeɪləm/;^[3] Halq̓eméylem in the Upriver dialect, Hul̓q̓umín̓um̓ in the Island dialect, and hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ in the Downriver dialect)^[4][5] is a language of various First Nations peoples of the British Columbia Coast. It is spoken in what is now British Columbia, ranging from southeastern Vancouver Island from the west shore of Saanich Inlet northward beyond Gabriola Island and Nanaimo to Nanoose Bay and including the Lower Mainland from the Fraser River Delta upriver to Harrison Lake and the lower boundary of the Fraser Canyon.

In the classification of Salishan languages, Halkomelem is a member of the Central Salish branch. There are four other branches of the family: Tsamosan, Interior Salish, Bella Coola, and Tillamook. Speakers of the Central and Tsamosan languages are often identified in ethnographic literature as "Coast Salish".

The word Halkomelem is an anglicization for the language Hul'qumi'num, which has three distinct dialect groups:

1. Hulquminum / Hul'qumi'num (Island dialect) or "Cowichan" (spoken by separate but closely related First Nations on Vancouver Island and adjoining islands on the west side of the Strait of Georgia: the Snuneymuxw (Nanaimo), Snaw-naw-as (Nanoose) – the former "Saalequun tribe" is part of both First Nations, Stz'uminus (Chemainus), Cowichan Tribes, Lake Cowichan (Ts'uubaa-asatx), an originally Southern Wakashan-speaking people^[6]), Halalt, Lyackson, Penelakut,^[7] and Lamalchi.^[8]
2. Hunquminum (hǝn̓q̓ǝmin̓ǝm̓) (Downriver dialect) or "Musqueam" (spoken by seven First Nations in the Lower Mainland in and around Vancouver, as well as in the Fraser River Delta and the lower reaches of the Fraser River; which consider themselves linguistically and culturally related ethnicities – but do not identify as Stó:lō (although in the literature mostly attributed to these), but today often refer to themselves as "Musqueam", the Musqueam, Tsawwassen, Kwantlen, Tsleil-Waututh, New Westminster Indian Band, Kwikwetlem (Coquitlam), Katzie, and the now extinct Snokomish (Derby people).)
3. Halqemeylem / Halq’eméylem (Upriver dialect) or "Stó:lō" (spoken by today 24 Sto:lo First Nations upstream along the Fraser River from Matsqui on to Yale; the historic "Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack)" (today's FN's Aitchelitz, Shxwhá:y Village, Skowkale, Soowahlie, Squiala, Tzeachten, and Yakweakwioose), "Pelóxwlh Mestiyexw (Pilalt/Pil’alt)" (today's FN's Cheam, Kwaw-kwaw-Apil, and Skwah), "Tiyt (Tait)" or "Upper Stó:lō" (today's FN's Popkum, Skawahlook, Chawathil, Seabird Island, Shxw'ow'hamel, Union Bar, Peters, and Yale), "Pepa:thxetel" or "Semà:th (Sumas)", and the "Sq’éwlets/Sqwōwich (Scowlitz)" (Sq'ewlets FN) tribes.^[9]

The language differences (namely, in phonology and lexicon) are greatest between the Island and Upriver dialects, with the Downriver dialect (especially the Tsawwassen First Nation) providing a central link between the other two. The diversity of the Halkomelem dialects is noted to be the result of complex social and economic forces and linguistic change, as many Island people crossed the Georgia Strait to camp along the Fraser River (in both the Downriver and Upriver areas) for the summer runs of salmon. Arranged marriages between children in different language areas was also common, helping to establish a regional social network in the Strait of Georgia–Puget Sound Basin.

Use and revitalization efforts

The Halkomelem language is near extinction. In 2000, it was estimated that the number of fluent Halkomelem speakers was fewer than twenty-five. Most are middle-aged or older, and few are monolingual, as there was a flood of English-speaking settlers in the region in the mid-19th century. Language programs at the Stó:lō Nation, Seabird Island First Nation, and Cowichan First Nation have been developed to save the language. A program aimed at adults at Musqueam is a collaboration between the band and the University of British Columbia First Nations and endangered languages program.

In September 2009, the University of California Press published American linguist Brent Galloway's Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem.^[10]

A Halkomelem iPhone app was released in 2011.^[11] This was followed by an Android version was released in 2016.^[12] The app was developed by the FirstVoices website. There are 1754 words archived and 690 phrases archived on the FirstVoices website.^[13]

As of 2014, 263 fluent speakers had been reported.^[14] In 2014, the number of Head Start Programs was 21, and this included a language-nest immersion preschool.^[15]

Phonology

Note: All examples are drawn from the Downriver dialect of Halkomelem spoken by the Musqueam band. Relevant differences in the phonology of the Island and Upriver dialects are noted at the foot of the phoneme charts.^[16]

Vowels

Halkomelem has five vowel phonemes. Long and short vowels (but not schwa) contrast. Vowel length is written in the native orthography as ⟨ꞏ⟩.

	Front		Central		Back (rounded)
	short	long	short	long	short	long
High	i	iː ⟨iꞏ⟩			u	uː ⟨uꞏ⟩
Mid	e	eː ⟨eꞏ⟩	ə		o1	oː ⟨oꞏ⟩1
Low			a	aː ⟨aꞏ⟩

^1 Upriver Halkomelem dialects also have a mid back vowel /o oː/.^[17][18]

All five vowel phonemes vary considerably phonetically. The phoneme /i/ has three distinct allophones. It is realized as following unrounded uvulars. It is realized as with a central off-glide preceding both unrounded and rounded uvulars. Elsewhere, it is realized as low or high . The /e/ is realized as a low to mid-front vowel, usually between or high . The /a/ is low and central to back, often close to . The /u/ is high, back, and rounded, realized somewhere between low or high .

When stressed, the schwa /ə/ appears in most environments as a mid-central, but it is fronted and raised before /x/, approaching ; before /j/ it is also fronted, approaching ; before ?pojem= it is lower and back, approaching ; and before rounded velars it is mid-back, close to . Unstressed /ə/ can be as high as before /x/ and /j/, and before labialized velars it is realized as or . This phoneme can also be assimilated to a stressed /e/ or a stressed /a/ in an adjacent syllable, by vowel harmony.

Consonants

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar			Palatal	Velar		Uvular		Glottal
				central	sibilant	lateral		plain	labial	plain	labial
Plosive/ Affricate1	voiceless	p ⟨p⟩	tθ ⟨tθ⟩2	t ⟨t⟩	ts ⟨c⟩		t͡ʃ ⟨č⟩2	k ⟨k⟩2	kʷ ⟨kʷ⟩	q ⟨q⟩	qʷ ⟨qʷ⟩
	ejective	pʼ ⟨p̓⟩	tθʼ ⟨t̓θ⟩	tʼ ⟨t̓⟩	tsʼ ⟨c̓⟩	tɬʼ ⟨ƛ̓⟩	t͡ʃʼ ⟨č̓⟩5	kʼ ⟨k̓⟩2	kʷʼ ⟨k̓ʷ⟩	qʼ ⟨q̓⟩	qʷʼ ⟨q̓ʷ⟩	ʔ ⟨ʔ⟩
	voiced3	b ⟨b⟩		d ⟨d⟩			d͡ʒ ⟨j⟩
Fricative	voiceless	f ⟨f⟩3	θ ⟨θ⟩		s ⟨s⟩	ɬ ⟨ɬ⟩	ʃ ⟨š⟩2	x ⟨x⟩	xʷ ⟨xʷ⟩	χ ⟨x̌⟩	χʷ ⟨x̌ʷ⟩	h ⟨h⟩
Sonorant	voiced	m ⟨m⟩		n ⟨n⟩		l ⟨l⟩	j ⟨y⟩		w ⟨w⟩	ʀ ⟨r⟩3
	glottalized4	mˀ ⟨m̓⟩		nˀ ⟨n̓⟩		lˀ ⟨l̓⟩	jˀ ⟨y̓⟩		wˀ ⟨w̓⟩

^1 The stops and affricates are grouped together for simplification purposes.

^2 Of recent and/or peripheral phonemic status.

^3 /b d d͡ʒ f ʀ/ occur only in a few borrowed and imitative words.

^4 The five glottalized resonants pose a problem in phonemic analysis, but occur frequently.

^5 Occurs in the Upriver dialect.

The plain plosives are less aspirate before vowels than in English, but they are more aspirate finally. Although the glottalized plosives are ejectives, they are not usually strongly released.

Suttles (2004) makes several interesting notes on the Musqueam obstruents. The labiodental fricative /f/ occurs in recent loans from English and their derivatives such as in káfi "coffee" and in číf "chief." The stops /t/ and /tʼ/ are articulated at a point slightly forward of that of the usual English /t d/, while the affricates c /ts/ and cʼ /tsʼ/ are somewhat more retracted than these same English /t d/. The affricate has only been recorded in kinjáj "English people" and kinjájqən "English (language)." The glottalized lateral affricate /ƛʼ/ is produced when the apex of the tongue at the onset is in the position for the lateral release rather than for a /t/, and there is less friction produced than with other affricates. The phonemes /k/ and /kʼ/ occur in "baby talk" as substitutes for /q/ and /qʼ/. The uvular fricative x̌ is produced with a great deal of friction and/or uvular vibration, and it contrasts strongly with the velar fricative /x/.

There is variation in the extent to which Musqueam speakers glottalize resonants. Phonetically, there are glottalized resonants (e.g. nˀ) and resonants preceded or followed by glottal stops (e.g. ʔn nʔ), however, Suttles (2004) finds no instances of contrastive distribution among any of the three. He puts forth two explanations for these facts: that there are two sequences of phonemes, /Rʔ/ and /ʔR/, with overlapping Rˀ allophones, or that there is a single phoneme /Rˀ/ that is realized in three distinct ways. In preferring the latter explanation, Suttles holds that there may be five glottalized resonant phonemes in the dialect, although Downriver speakers glottalize resonants very lightly, making them difficult to detect.

In most Upriver dialects, glottalized resonants do not exist, while in Island dialects, they are more sharply articulated (tenseness is a key feature of Island speech). As is the case with many other phonological features, Downriver Halkomelem stands as a link between the other dialect areas, and it is possible that its speakers vary depending on Island or Upriver influence. Other differences between dialects include: Island and Downriver have both /n/ and /l/, while Upriver has merged these as /l/. Upriver Halkomelem lacks the post-vocalic glottal stops of the other two dialects, and shows compensatory lengthening in that environment. Additionally, Upriver dialects have greater pitch differences, and some words are differentiated by pitch alone.

Stress and pitchedit

Based on Suttles' (2004) recordings of several speakers of the Downriver (Musqueam) dialect, stress in Halkomelem consists of an increase in intensity and an accompanying rise in pitch. The three levels of stress are primary (marked /׳/), secondary (marked /`/), and weak (unmarked). There is one vowel with primary stress in every full word, however, its occurrence is not completely predictable.

In uninflected words with more than one vowel, the primary stress usually falls on the first vowel (e.g. as in céləx "hand" and léləmʼ "house"). There are exceptions to this general pattern (e.g. as in xəmén "enemy"). As shown by the preceding example, if the word contains both a full vowel and one or more schwas, the stress is placed on the full vowel. Again, there are exceptions to this pattern, such as in words with a final glottal stop that cannot be preceded by schwa (e.g. as in nə́cʼaʔ "one").

Although minimal pairs contrasting stress are rare, they do exist in the language. The primary stress of a verb root consisting of a resonant, a schwa, and an obstruent followed by the suffix /-t/ "transitive" can fall on either the root or the suffix, allowing for minimal pairs such as mə̀kʼʷət "salvage it" and məkʼʷə́t "finish it all."

The secondary stress appears most often in words that are composed of a root that has retained its stress and a stressed suffix (e.g. as in cʼéwəθàmx "help me"). It may be the case, however, that the secondary stress recorded by Suttles (2004) in words like cʼéwəθàmx is actually a falling pitch; this seems to be characteristic of the last stressed syllable of a phrase in the language. Additional analyses of the sentential intonation patterns are needed.

Phonotacticsedit

All obstruents (except the glottals) typically follow one another in sequences of up to four, although a sequence of five is also possible (e.g. as in txʷstx̌ʷásʔal "just standing in shock"). There are no specific restrictions on the types of obstruent sequences that can occur. Plosives appearing in sequences are rearticulated, and sequences of /ss/ are common in the language.

Resonants only appear adjacent to vowels. When these sounds occur in the middle of words, they are found in sequences of resonant-obstruent, resonant-resonant, and obstruent-resonant. An initial resonant is always followed by a vowel, and a final resonant must be preceded by one.

The laryngeals are more restricted than members of the other natural classes in Halkomelem. The glottal stop occurs only adjacent to a vowel, and, within words, it does not follow any obstruent except (the prefix) /s/. It can never occur in final position following a schwa. /h/ occurs only before vowels, following a resonant or one of the fricatives at morpheme boundaries, but never following other obstruents. It can appear between an unstressed and a stressed vowel, but it cannot occur between a stressed and an unstressed vowel.

Morphophonemicsedit

Certain processes affect the realization of underlying sounds in Halkomelem. Alternations that occur fairly commonly are discussed in this section, rather than in the following section on morphology.

• In rapid speech, there is optional loss of some instances of schwa, glottal stop, glottalization of resonants, and /h/.
  • An unstressed schwa following an initial nasal stop may be lost, if there is a vowel preceding; the nasal is sometimes heard as part of that syllable (e.g. as in tənəmén ~ tən mén "my father").
  • /nə/ with no preceding vowel sometimes appears as syllabic n (e.g. as in xʷnəcʼáwəθ ~ xʷncʼáwəθ "one kind").
  • A glottal stop after an unstressed final vowel may be lost, in which case the vowel will be reduced to a schwa (e.g. as in méqeʔ ~ méqə).
  • The glottalization of resonants following unstressed vowels is often inaudible (e.g. as in smənʼéꞏm ~ smənéꞏm "descendants").
  • /h/ before a stressed vowel may be lost when preceded by a spirant (e.g. as in sháꞏyʼ ~ sáꞏyʼ "finished").
• An unstressed schwa may take on the quality of an adjacent full vowel, or one that is separated from it by a glottal stop (e.g. as in spéʔəθ ~ spéʔeθ "black bear").
• When a root with the shape of /CARˀ/ (C is any consonant, A is a full vowel, Rˀ is a glottalized resonant), takes the suffix /-ət/ "transitive," the resulting form is /CAʔəRt/. It appears that the resonant and schwa have switched positions (a form of metathesis), but the glottal stop protects the schwa from assimilating to the full vowel (e.g. as in wílʼ "appear" and wíʔəlt "make it appear").
• Several roots appear alone, without having undergone affixation (e.g. as in ʔí "big" and pá "get blown on"). When this type of root is followed by a suffix that begins with a stressed vowel, (e.g. as in /-ínəs/ "chest"), an /h/ appears (e.g. as in θəhínəs "barrel-chested"). A final /h/ is never realized after a stressed vowel.
• A number of suffixes beginning with /n/ have forms with initial /l/ when they are added to a root or stem ending in /l/ (i.e. there is alternation of /n/ and /l/ in certain morphological cases in this language) (e.g. as in /-nəxʷ/ ~ /-ləxʷ/ "limited control" in ɬə́qʼəlləxʷ "know it" and cə́llexʷ "catch up with him").
• In the progressive and resultative forms of few verbs with initial /c/ or /x/ followed by /a/, the /c/ is reduplicated as /kʷ/ and the /x/ as /xʷ/ (e.g. as in cám "go/come inland" and its progressive cákʷəm "be going/coming inland").
• Vowel gradation often occurs between a full vowel, schwa, and zero, depending on the type of root or stem, type of suffix, and placement of stress.
• When some suffixes are joined with stems, a change in the quality of the stressed vowel, from one full vowel to another, in the stem, or (rarely) in the suffix results. The vowel mutations are the product of the assimilation of one vowel to that of an adjacent syllable at an earlier stage in the language's history. Three kinds of these mutations exist (although only the first example is common). In the first two examples, the vowel mutation is similar to the umlauting effect of a suffix on stems in Germanic languages.
  • Stem /e/ changes to /a/ (e.g. as in xʷƛʼáqtəs "long-faced" ƛʼéqt "long").
  • Stem /a/ to /e/ (e.g. as in péꞏltʼθeʔ "buzzard (turkey vulture)," which is composed of spáꞏl "raven" and the suffix /-itθeʔ/ "clothing, blanket" with metathesis).
  • Suffix /e/ to /a/ (e.g. as in sqʼəqʼəxán "partner," which is composed of sqʼəqʼáʔ "accompanying" and the suffix /-xən/ ~ /-xén/ "foot").

Writing systemedit

In 1997, the Musqueam First Nation officially adopted the Americanist phonetic alphabet.^[19] This alphabet does not use upper case letters.

Halkomelem alphabet hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ (Musqueam)

c

c̓

č

h

k

kʷ

k̓ʷ

l

l̓

ƛ̓

ɬ

m

m̓

n

n̓

p

p̓

q

q̓

qʷ

q̓ʷ

s

š

t

t̓

t̓ᶿ

θ

w

w̓

x

xʷ

χ

χʷ

y

y̓

ʔ

a

a:

e

e:

i

i:

u

u:

ə

ay

ey

ey̓

əy

əy̓

aw̓

a:w̓

ew

iw

iw̓

əw

əw̓

Typographyedit

Typefaces that are designed for Latin alphabet do not include all the letters required to display the language correctly. The Musqueam Band language department collaborated with the University of British Columbia to create a typeface called Whitney Salishan that displays all the characters correctly.^[20]

Comparisonedit

Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Halqemeylem
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Comparison of Halkomelem alphabets^[21]

IPA	APA	Island	Cowichan	Stó:lō (Upriver)
i	i	i	i	i
e ~ ɛ ~ æ	e ~ ɛ ~ æ	e	e	a
ə ~ ʌ ~ ɪ ~ ʊ	ə ~ ʌ ~ ɪ ~ ʊ	u	u	e
u	u	oo	ou	u
o	o	–	o	ō
p	p	p	p	p
tθ	tᶿ	tth	–	tth
t	t	t	t	t
ts	c	c	ts	ts
tʃ	č	ch	ch	ch
k	k	k	k	k
kʷ	kʷ	kw	kw	kw
q	q	q	q	q