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The deuterocanonical books,[a] meaning "Of, pertaining to, or constituting a second canon,"[1] collectively known as the Deuterocanon (DC),[2] are certain books and passages considered to be canonical books of the Old Testament by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East, but which modern Jews and Protestants regard as apocrypha.
Seven books are accepted as deuterocanonical by all the ancient churches: Tobias, Judith, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, First and Second Maccabees and also the Greek additions to Esther and Daniel.[4] In addition to these, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East add other books to their canons.
They date from 300 BC to 100 AD, before the separation of the Christian church from Judaism,[5][6][7] and they are regularly found in old manuscripts and cited frequently by the Church Fathers, such as Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Irenaeus, Tertullian, among others.[8]
According to the Gelasian Decree written by an anonymous author, the Council of Rome (382 AD) defined a list of books of scripture as canonical. It included most of the deuterocanonical books.[9][10] Patristic and synodal lists from the 200s, 300s and 400s usually include selections of the deutorocanonical books.
Hebrew Bible canon
Although there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed, some scholars hold that the Hebrew canon was established well before the 1st century AD – even as early as the 4th century BC,[11] or by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–40 BC).[12]
The canon of modern Rabbinic Judaism excludes the deuterocanonical books. Albert J. Sundberg writes that Judaism did not exclude from their scriptures the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here.[13]
Ancient Christian canons
The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which the early Christian church used as its Old Testament, included all of the deuterocanonical books. The term distinguished these books from both the protocanonical books (the books of the Hebrew canon) and the biblical apocrypha (books of Jewish origin that were sometimes read in Christian churches as scripture but which were not regarded as canonical).[14]
Some commentators see texts from these particular books being paraphrased, referred, or alluded to many times in the New Testament, depending in large measure on what is counted as a reference;[15] other scholars point to a correspondence of thought.[16][17]
Protestant Canon
For churches which espouse sola scriptura independent of ecclesiastical authorities or sacred Tradition, it is necessary and critical to have a clear and complete list of the canonical books.[18]
The early Christian church largely relied upon the Septuagint in the canonization of the Christian Bible. In the 16th century, Martin Luther argued that many of the received texts of the New Testament lacked the authority of the Gospels, and therefore proposed removing a number of books from the New Testament, including Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Book of Revelation. While this proposal was not widely accepted among Protestants, the deuterocanonical books—which had previously been deprecated by Jewish scholars—were moved by Luther into an intertestamental section of the Bible called the apocrypha.[19][20]
Lutherans and Anglicans do not consider these books to be canonical but do consider them worthy of reverence. As such, readings from the Protestant apocrypha are found in the lectionaries of these churches.[20][21] Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the apocrypha as intertestamental books; Amish wedding ceremonies include "the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha".[22]
List of deuterocanonicals
The deuterocanonical texts held as canonical by all the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church and the Church of the East are:[23]
- Tobit
- Judith
- Baruch
- Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)
- 1 Maccabees
- 2 Maccabees
- Wisdom
- Additions to Esther:
- Fulfillment of Mordecai's Dream (Esther 10:4–13)
- Interpretation of Mordecai's Dream (Vulgate Esther 11)
- Conspiracy of the Two Eunuchs (Vulgate Esther 12)
- Letter of Aman and the Prayer of Mordecai to the Jews (Vulgate Esther 13)
- The Prayer of Esther (Vulgate Esther 14)
- Esther Comes into the King's Presence (Vulgate Esther 15)
- Letter of King Artaxerxes (Vulgate Esther 16)
- Additions to Daniel:
- Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children (Septuagint Daniel 3:24–90)
- Susanna and the Elders (Septuagint prologue, Vulgate Daniel 13)
- Bel and the Dragon (Septuagint epilogue, Vulgate Daniel 14)
- Additions to Baruch:
- Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6)
Canonical only for the Eastern Orthodox Church:[23]
- Prayer of Manasseh
- 1 Esdras
- 2 Esdras
- 3 Maccabees
- 4 Maccabees as an appendix
- Additions to Psalms:
Dates of composition
| Book | Dating | Original language (and location) |
|---|---|---|
| Letter of Jeremiah | c. 300 BC[24] | Oldest versions Greek, probably originally Hebrew or Aramaic[24] |
| Psalm 151 | c. 300–200 BC[25] | Hebrew (Psalms 151a+b), later merged into Koine Greek Psalm 151[25] |
| 1 Esdras | c. 200–140 BC[26] | Probably Greek in Egypt, possibly from a 3rd-century Semitic original[26] |
| Sirach | c. 180–175 BC[27] | Hebrew in Jerusalem[27] |
| Tobit | c. 225–175[28] or 175–164 BC[29] | Probably Aramaic, possibly Hebrew,[28] possibly in Antioch[29] |
| Wisdom of Solomon | c. 150 BC[30] | Most probably Koine Greek in Alexandria[30] |
| Judith | c. 150–100 BC[31]: 26 | Oldest versions Greek, originally probably Hebrew, possibly Greek[31]: 25 |
| 2 Maccabees | c. 150–120 BC[28] | Koine Greek[32] |
| 1 Maccabees | c. 135–103 BC[32][28] | Oldest versions Greek, original probably Hebrew, probably in Jerusalem[32][28] |
| Additions to Daniel | c. 100 BC[33] | Oldest versions Greek, originally Semitic or Greek[33] |
| Prayer of Manasseh | c. 200 BC – AD 50[25] | Oldest versions Greek, originally probably Greek, possibly Semitic[25] |
| Baruch[34][35][28] | c. 200–100 BC (1:1–3:38)
c. 100 BC – AD 100 (3:39–5:9) |
(1:1–3:38) Koine Greek, probably originally Hebrew
(3:39–5:9) Koine Greek, possibly originally Hebrew or Aramaic |
| 3 Maccabees | c. 100–50 BC[25] | Koine Greek, probably in Alexandria[25] |
| Additions to Esther | c. 100–1 BC[36] | Koine Greek in Alexandria[36] |
| 4 Maccabees | c. AD 18–55[25] | Koine Greek, probably outside Palestine[25] |
| 2 Esdras | c. AD 90–100 (4 Ezra)[37] c. AD 100–300 (5 Ezra)[37] c. AD 200–300 (6 Ezra)[37] |
4 Ezra (2 Esdras 3–14): probably Hebrew by a Palestinian Jew[37] 5 Ezra (2 Esdras 1–2): probably Latin by a Christian[37] 6 Ezra (2 Esdras 15–16): probably Greek by a Levantine Christian[37] |
| Odes | c. AD 400–440[38] | Codex Alexandrinus is the oldest version. Medieval Greek, prior history unknown[38] |
Historical background
Deuterocanonical is a term coined in 1566 by the theologian Sixtus of Siena, who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism, to describe scriptural texts considered canonical by the Catholic Church, but which recognition was considered "secondary". For Sixtus, this term included portions of both Old and New Testaments. Sixtus considers the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark to be deuterocanonical. He also applies the term to the Book of Esther from the canon of the Hebrew Bible.[39][3]
The term was then taken up by other writers to apply specifically to those books of the Old Testament which had been recognised as canonical by the Councils of Rome (382 AD), Hippo (393 AD), Carthage (397 AD and 419 AD), Florence (1442 AD) and Trent (1546 AD), but which were not in the Hebrew canon.[39][3][b]
Forms of the term “deuterocanonical” were adopted after the 16th century by the Eastern Orthodox Church to denote canonical books of the Septuagint not in the Hebrew Bible, a wider selection than that adopted by the Council of Trent, and also by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to apply to works believed to be of Jewish origin translated in the Old Testament of the Ethiopic Bible, a wider selection still.[40]
The acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called deuterocanonical.[41] Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after 100 AD,[42] sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries.[3][c]
The Catholic Encyclopedia states:
The official attitude of the Latin Church, always favourable to them, kept the majestic tenor of its way. Two documents of capital importance in the history of the canon constitute the first formal utterance of papal authority on the subject. The first is the so-called "Decretal of Gelasius", the essential part of which is now generally attributed to a synod convoked by Pope Damasus in the year 382. The other is the Canon of Innocent I, sent in 405 to a Gallican bishop in answer to an inquiry. Both contain all the deuterocanonicals, without any distinction, and are identical with the catalogue of Trent. The African Church, always a staunch supporter of the contested books, found itself in entire accord with Rome on this question. Its ancient version, the Vetus Latina, had admitted all the Old Testament Scriptures. St. Augustine seems to theoretically recognize degrees of inspiration; in practice he employs protos and deuteros without any discrimination whatsoever. Moreover in his "De Doctrinâ Christianâ" he enumerates the components of the complete Old Testament. The Synod of Hippo (393) and the three of Carthage (393, 397, and 419), in which, doubtless, Augustine was the leading spirit, found it necessary to deal explicitly with the question of the Canon, and drew up identical lists from which no sacred books are excluded. These councils base their canon on tradition and liturgical usage.[3]
Dead Sea scrolls
The Book of Sirach, whose Hebrew text was already known from the Cairo Geniza, has been found in two of the Dead Sea Scrolls (2QSir or 2Q18, 11QPs_a or 11Q5) in Hebrew. Another Hebrew scroll of Sirach has been found in Masada (MasSir).[43]: 597 Five fragments from the Book of Tobit have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos. 196–200).[d][43]: 636 The Letter of Jeremiah (or Baruch chapter 6) has been found in cave 7 (papyrus 7Q2) in Greek.[43]: 628
Recent scholars have suggested[44] that the Qumran library of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran[45] was not entirely produced at Qumran, but may have included part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, that may have been hidden in the caves for safekeeping at the time the Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 AD.
Influence of the Septuagint
Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Septuagint are:
| Greek name[46][47] | Transliteration | English name |
| Deuterocanonical books | ||
|---|---|---|
| Τωβίτ[e] | Tōbit[f] | Tobit or Tobias |
| Ἰουδίθ | Ioudith | Judith |
| Ἐσθήρ | Esthēr | Esther with additions |
| Μακκαβαίων Αʹ | 1 Makkabaiōn | 1 Maccabees |
| Μακκαβαίων Βʹ | 2 Makkabaiōn | 2 Maccabees |
| Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος | Sophia Salomōntos | Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon |
| Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ | Sophia Iēsou Seirach | Sirach or Ecclesiasticus |
| Βαρούχ | Barouch | Baruch |
| Ἐπιστολὴ Ἰερεμίου | Epistolē Ieremiou | Letter of Jeremiah |
| Δανιήλ | Daniēl | Daniel with additions |
| Deuterocanonical for the Eastern Orthodox Churches[g] | ||
| Προσευχὴ Μανασσῆ | Proseuchē Manassē | Prayer of Manasseh |
| Ἔσδρας Αʹ | 1 Esdras | 1 Esdras |
| Μακκαβαίων Γʹ | 3 Makkabaiōn | 3 Maccabees |
| Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα | 4 Makkabaiōn | 4 Maccabees |
| Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ | Psalmos 151 | Psalm 151 |
| Apocrypha | ||
| Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος | Psalmoi Salomōntos | Psalms of Solomon |
The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX), editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha – both of which are called collectively anagignoskomena ("readable, worthy of reading").[48][unreliable source?] No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha.[49]
Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament "psalms": the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Nunc dimittis from Luke's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the "Gloria in Excelsis".[50] Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin.[51]
In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees.[52] For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral[citation needed] tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11:37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference. Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature.[53]
Influence of early authors
The Jewish historian Josephus (c. 94 AD) wrote that the Hebrew Bible contained 22 canonical books.[54] The same number of 22 books was reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius, but they might differ on the exact content (see below for Athanasius), as Josephus did not provide a detailed list.[55]
According to Origen of Alexandria (c. 240 AD), Eusebius described the Hebrew Bible as containing 22 canonical books. Among these books he listed the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees.
The twenty-two books of the Hebrews are the following: That which is called by us Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Jesus, the son of Nave (Joshua book); Judges and Ruth in one book; the First and Second of Kings (1 Samuel and 2 Samuel) in one; the Third and Fourth of Kings (1 Kings and 2 Kings) in one; of the Chronicles, the First and Second in one; Esdras (Ezra–Nehemiah) in one; the book of Psalms; the Proverbs of Solomon; Ecclesiastes; the Song of Songs; Isaiah; Jeremiah, with Lamentations and the epistle (of Jeremiah) in one; Daniel; Ezekiel; Job; Esther. And besides these there are the Maccabees.[56]
Eusebius wrote in his Church History (c. 324 AD) that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of the Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians.[57] On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: "In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called 'The Wisdom of Solomon'."[58]
Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 350 AD) in his Catechetical Lectures cites as canonical books "Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and the Epistle (of Jeremiah)".[59]
In Athanasius's canonical books list (367 AD) the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are included and Esther is omitted. At the same time, he mentioned that certain other books, including four deuterocanonical books (the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Judith and Tobit), the book of Esther and also the Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas, while not being part of the Canon, "were appointed by the Fathers to be read". He excluded what he called "apocryphal writings" entirely.[60]
Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 385 AD) mentions that "there are 27 books given the Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five". He wrote in his Panarion that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book. While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity.[61]
Augustine (c. 397 AD) writes in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8) that two books of Maccabees, Tobias, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus are canonical books.
Now the whole canon of Scripture on which we say this judgment is to be exercised, is contained in the following books: – Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; one book of Joshua the son of Nun; one of Judges; one short book called Ruth; next, four books of Kings (the two books of Samuel and the two books of Kings), and two of Chronicles, Job, and Tobias, and Esther, and Judith, and the two books of Maccabees, and the two of Ezra ...one book of the Psalms of David; and three books of Solomon, that is to say Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes... For two books, one called Wisdom and the other Ecclesiasticus... Twelve separate books of the prophets which are connected with one another, and having never been disjoined, are reckoned as one book; the names of these prophets are as follows: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; then there are the four greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel.[62]
According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia (c. 400 AD) the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books.[63] In this category Rufinus includes the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees. Rufinus makes no mention of Baruch[64] or the Epistle of Jeremiah.[63]
Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon.[65]
Which books really are received in the canon, this brief addition shows. These therefore are the things of which you desired to be informed. Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, and Joshua the son of Nun, and Judges, and the four books of Kings together with Ruth, sixteen books of the Prophets, five books of Solomon ,[66] and the Psalms. Also of the historical books, one book of Job, one of Tobit, one of Esther, one of Judith, two of Maccabees, two of Ezra , two of Chronicles.[67]
In the 7th century Latin document the Muratorian fragment, which some scholars[who?] actually believe to be a copy of an earlier 170 AD Greek original, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon is counted by the church.
Moreover, the epistle of Jude and two of the above-mentioned (or, bearing the name of) John are counted (or, used) in the catholic ; and Wisdom, written by the friends of Solomon in his honour.[68]
Synods
In later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding the other deuterocanonical books.[69][70]
According to Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, the Council of Rome (382 AD) cites a list of books of scripture presented as having been made canonical. This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah as a part of the Old Testament canon:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Kings IV books , Chronicles II books, 150 Psalms, three books of Solomon , Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah with Cinoth i.e. his lamentations, Ezechiel, Daniel, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habbakuk Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Job, Tobit, Esdras II books , Ester, Judith, Maccabees II books.[10]
The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first councils that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes a selection of books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible;[71] the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.[72][73][74]
Canon XXIV from the Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD) records the scriptures which are considered canonical; the Old Testament books as follows:
Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy; Joshua the Son of Nun; The Judges; Ruth; The Kings, iv. books ; The Chronicles, ii. books; Job; The Psalter; The Five books of Solomon ; The Twelve Books of the Prophets ; Jeremiah; Ezechiel; Daniel; Tobit; Judith; Esther; Ezra, ii. books ; Maccabees, ii. books.[75]
On 28 August 397, the Council of Carthage confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part is stated:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua the son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, two books of Paraleipomena 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Job, the Psalter, five books of Solomon Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus , the books of the twelve prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, two books of Esdras Ezra, Nehemiah, two Books of the Maccabees.[76]
In 419 AD, the Council of Carthage in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah as canonical scripture:
The Canonical Scriptures are as follows: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua the son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, two books of Chronicles, Job, the Psalter, five books of Solomon Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus, the books of the twelve prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, two books of Esdras Ezra, Nehemiah, two Books of the Maccabees.[77]
The Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Council in Trullo in 692 AD (not recognized by the Catholic Church) states as venerable and sacred the first three books of Maccabees and Wisdom of Sirach.[78]
The Roman Catholic Council of Florence (1442) promulgated a list of the books of the Bible, including the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books:
Five books of Moses, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, two of Paralipomenon 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Esdras Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job, Psalms of David, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Ezechiel, Daniel; the twelve minor prophets, namely Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; two books of the Maccabees.[79]
The Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1546) adopted an understanding of the canons of these previous councils as corresponding to its own list of deuterocanonical books:
Of the Old Testament, the five books of Moses, namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Josue, Judges, Ruth, the four books of Kings 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, two of Paralipomenon 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, the first and second of Esdras Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobias, Judith, Esther, Job, the Davidic Psalter of 150 Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Canticle of Canticles Song of Songs, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaias, Jeremias, with Baruch, Ezechiel, Daniel, the twelve minor Prophets, namely, Osee, Joel, Amos, Abdias, Jonas, Micheas, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonias, Aggeus, Zacharias, Malachias; two books of Machabees, the first and second.[80]
Influence of Jeromeedit
Jerome in one of his Vulgate prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books. In these prologues, Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or "not in the canon" except for Prayer of Manasses and Baruch. He mentions Baruch by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah[81] and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the "confirmation of the doctrine of the Church".[3]
J. N. D. Kelly states that "Jerome, conscious of the difficulty of arguing with Jews on the basis of books they spurned and anyhow regarding the Hebrew original as authoritative, was adamant that anything not found in it was 'to be classed among the apocrypha', not in the canon; later he grudgingly conceded that the Church read some of these books for edification, but not to support doctrine."[82]
Jerome's Vulgate included the deuterocanonical books as well as apocrypha. Jerome referenced and quoted from some as scripture despite describing them as "not in the canon". Michael Barber asserts that, although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, he later viewed them as scripture. Barber argues that this is clear from Jerome's epistles; he cites Jerome's letter to Eustochium, in which Jerome quotes Sirach 13:2.[83] Elsewhere Jerome apparently also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture.[84][85][86] Henry Barker states that Jerome quotes the Apocrypha with marked respect, and even as "Scripture", giving them an ecclesiastical if not a canonical position and use.[87] Luther also wrote introductions to the books of the Apocrypha, and occasionally quoted from some to support an argument.[88]
In his prologue to Judith, without using the word canon, Jerome mentioned that Judith was held to be scriptural by the First Council of Nicaea.
Among the Hebrews the Book of Judith is found among the Hagiographa. ...But because this book is found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures, I have acquiesced to your request.[89]
In his reply to Rufinus, Jerome affirmed that he was consistent with the choice of the church regarding which version of the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel to use, which the Jews of his day did not include:
What sin have I committed in following the judgment of the churches? But when I repeat what the Jews say against the Story of Susanna and the Hymn of the Three Children, and the fables of Bel and the Dragon, which are not contained in the Hebrew Bible, the man who makes this a charge against me proves himself to be a fool and a slanderer; for I explained not what I thought but what they commonly say against us. (Against Rufinus, II:33 402 AD)[90]
Thus Jerome acknowledged the principle by which the canon would be settled—the judgment of the Church (at least the local churches in this case) rather than his own judgment or the judgment of Jews; though concerning translation of Daniel to Greek, he wondered why one should use the version of a translator whom he regarded as a heretic and judaizer (Theodotion).[90]
The Vulgate is also important as the touchstone of the canon concerning which parts of books are canonical. When the Council of Trent confirmed the books included in the first canon, it qualified the books as being "entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition".[91] This decree was clarified somewhat by Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927, who allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute.[92]
The Council of Trent also ratified the Vulgate Bible as the official Latin version of the Bible for the Roman Catholic Church.[93]
Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Latin Vulgate are:[94]
| Latin name | English name | |
| Deuterocanonical Books | ||
|---|---|---|
| Tobiae | Tobit or Tobias | |
| Judith | Judith | |
| Esther | Esther with additions | |
| Machabaeorum I | 1 Maccabees | |
| Machabaeorum II | 2 Maccabees | |
| Sapientia | Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon | |
| Ecclesiasticus | Sirach or Ecclesiasticus | |
| Baruch | Baruch included the Epistle of Jeremiah | |
| Daniel | Daniel with additions | |
| Apocryphal Books | ||
| 3 Esdrae | 1 Esdras | |
| 4 Esdrae | 2 Esdras | |
| Psalmi 151 | Psalm 151 | |
| Oratio Manasse | Prayer of Manasseh | |
| Epistula Ad Laodicenses | Epistle to the Laodiceans | |
Masoretic Textedit
The existence of the Septuagint, Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Peshitta versions of the Hebrew scriptures demonstrate that different versions of Judaism used different texts, and it is debated which is closest to the Urtext (a theoretical "original" text from which all of these emerged). The Dead Sea Scrolls contain some of the deuterocanonical books, while the Masoretic Text excludes them. Since the Enlightenment, it was wrongly believed that the Masoretic Text was the "original" Hebrew Bible when this was in fact a medieval version created by the Masoretes. The oldest nearly-complete manuscripts of the Old Testament include the Codex Vaticanus (4th century) and the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), while the oldest complete manuscript of the Masoretic text is the Codex Leningradensis from 1008.[95][96]
The Septuagint was the version of the Hebrew Bible from which the early Christians emerged. The Christian Bible contained these deuterocanonical books until Martin Luther, assuming the Masoretic text to be the original, removed them to match this new Jewish canon. Rabbinic Judaism is a newer form of Judaism that created the Masoretic text in part to deter a Christian reading of the Old Testament.[97][98]
In the Catholic Churchedit
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